Add JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT to set how deep value walks recurse

Copying, comparing, serializing, hashing, merging, diffing, converting and destroying a value, and the CBOR, MessagePack, UBJSON, BJData and BON8 writers recurse a fixed number of nesting levels on the call stack and finish deeper levels with an explicit stack (#5387). The number was hard-coded to 128. That is too much for small stacks: a 128-level dump() needs about 288 KiB at -O0 with Clang (2.3 KiB per level; 256 KiB with GCC) and crashed in a thread with a 256 KiB stack, and musl threads have 128 KiB by default. Others may want the opposite. The macro JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT, defined before including the library, sets the number; the default stays 128. The value must be an integer constant from 0 to 254 (not a floating-point number or bool), otherwise a static_assert names the macro. 254 is the largest value because the copy constructor and the comparison operators cannot pass a depth down and count it in a byte per thread (nesting_depth()). The guard that counts now counts only the levels it enters, so the count never exceeds the limit. It used to count the level that finds the limit reached as well, which made the count 255 at limit 254: a copy made by a custom base class while a copy was going on then wrapped the byte to 0 and recursed another 254 levels (twice the stack). 0 is allowed: every walk then uses its explicit stack from the first level on and needs a constant amount of stack (16 KiB or less at -O0 with Clang and GCC, for a value nested 20,000 levels deep). All uses of the limit compare a depth with it; none computes limit - 1 or limit + 1, and no walk has a constant 128 of its own. The macro changes only stack use and speed, never a result. Like JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL it is not part of the ABI tag and must be the same in all translation units (ODR); the page of the macro says what happens otherwise. Supporting a limit of 0 needed one fix: update() without merge_objects reached the explicit-stack merge at depth 0, which always merges objects. update_members now takes that path only with merge_objects, which is the only case in which it recurses at all. Measurements (macOS arm64, Apple clang 21 and g++ 16, documented in the macro page with a table per operation and optimization level, and a program to reproduce them): the stack needed at the default of 128 levels is up to 288 KiB (dump at -O0, Clang), 224 KiB (copy), and 48 KiB or less at -O2; at 254 levels up to 576 KiB at -O0 and 112 KiB at -O2. Speed at -O2 relative to the default: ordinary documents (nested 2 to 10 levels) are 1.1 to 2.4 times as slow with a limit of 0 or 1 and unchanged (within about 0.1) with 16 or 254; values nested 1,000 or 100,000 levels deep show no difference for any limit. The default build does the same work as before: the instructions retired for copy and conversion (the walks whose guard changed; net of loading, canada, citm, twitter, jeopardy and deep values), ==, dump and hash differ from the base by at most 0.02 % for copy and 0.71 % in either direction for the others (noise), and the cycles for copy by at most 0.65 %. Tests: the existing tests that depended on 128 (comparison, allocator, custom base class, diagnostics, binary writers, patch, merge_diff, conversions, custom array type) derive their depths from the limit, and two assumed a limit of at least 1 (limit - 1 wrapped around). tests/src/unit-recursion_depth_limit.cpp checks that the macro is honoured (the array type of a value counts the levels that a copy and a comparison descend) and that all walks return the same results for values nested 1 to 300 levels deep as arrays, objects and both, against expected strings and bytes built independently of the library; CMake builds it with limits 0, 1 and 254 besides the default, and the CI target ci_test_recursion_depth_limit_0 runs the whole suite with a limit of 0. A test with a base class that copies the value from its copy constructor covers the wrap-around at 254. The new test does not compile against the previous header with -DJSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT=1. Docs: new macro page (range, stack and speed tables, small-stack guidance, ODR), index, nav, macro overview, "Nesting depth" of the untrusted-input page (which claimed that no walk could exhaust the stack however deep a value is nested; the default assumes a stack of a few hundred KiB), the assurance case, and the page of JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL. No breaking changes: the default is unchanged, and the macro is new. Signed-off-by: Niels Lohmann <mail@nlohmann.me>
2026-11-11 18:08:22 +00:00 · 2026-11-11 18:32:55 +01:00
50 changed files with 1386 additions and 2389 deletions
@@ -153,7 +153,7 @@ jobs:
    container: ubuntu:24.04
    strategy:
      matrix:
-        target: [ci_cmake_flags, ci_test_diagnostics, ci_test_diagnostic_positions, ci_test_noexceptions, ci_test_noimplicitconversions, ci_test_legacycomparison, ci_test_noglobaludls, ci_test_disableenumserialization, ci_test_disabletuplereferenceconversion, ci_test_skiplibraryversioncheck, ci_test_simdutf, ci_test_strict_nul_handling, ci_test_delete_deprecated_functions, ci_test_no_thread_local]
+        target: [ci_cmake_flags, ci_test_diagnostics, ci_test_diagnostic_positions, ci_test_noexceptions, ci_test_noimplicitconversions, ci_test_legacycomparison, ci_test_noglobaludls, ci_test_disableenumserialization, ci_test_disabletuplereferenceconversion, ci_test_skiplibraryversioncheck, ci_test_simdutf, ci_test_strict_nul_handling, ci_test_delete_deprecated_functions, ci_test_no_thread_local, ci_test_recursion_depth_limit_0]
    steps:
      - name: Install build-essential
        run: apt-get update ; apt-get install -y build-essential unzip wget git
@@ -342,6 +342,27 @@ add_custom_target(ci_test_no_thread_local
    COMMENT "Compile and test without thread-local storage"
 )

+###############################################################################
+# Change the number of levels the walks over a value recurse into.
+###############################################################################
+
+# JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT is 128 by default, which is what the whole test
+# suite otherwise runs with. 0 sends every walk to its explicit stack at once,
+# so this target runs the whole suite through the walks that the default only
+# uses for values nested more deeply than 128 levels: results must not depend on
+# the limit. The largest limit, 254, is covered by a build of
+# tests/src/unit-recursion_depth_limit.cpp (see tests/CMakeLists.txt).
+add_custom_target(ci_test_recursion_depth_limit_0
+    COMMAND ${CMAKE_COMMAND}
+    -DCMAKE_BUILD_TYPE=Debug -GNinja
+    -DJSON_BuildTests=ON -DJSON_FastTests=ON
+    -DCMAKE_CXX_FLAGS=-DJSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT=0
+    -S${PROJECT_SOURCE_DIR} -B${PROJECT_BINARY_DIR}/build_recursion_depth_limit_0
+    COMMAND ${CMAKE_COMMAND} --build ${PROJECT_BINARY_DIR}/build_recursion_depth_limit_0
+    COMMAND cd ${PROJECT_BINARY_DIR}/build_recursion_depth_limit_0 && ${CMAKE_CTEST_COMMAND} --parallel ${N} --output-on-failure
+    COMMENT "Compile and test with JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT=0"
+)
+
 ###############################################################################
 # Coverage.
 ###############################################################################
@@ -89,11 +89,8 @@ Strong guarantee: if an exception is thrown, there are no changes in the JSON va
 - Throws [out_of_range.406](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range406) if a high-precision number, or a
  float64 when `number_float_t` is `float`, does not fit into `number_float_t`
 - Throws [out_of_range.408](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range408) if the count of an optimized
-  container exceeds the capacity of the container (or of `std::size_t`; an array of type `N` is empty, so only the
-  latter applies to it), if an optimized array of `Z`, `T`, or `F` has more than 1,048,576 elements, or if the
-  optimized arrays of `Z`, `T`, and `F` in the input together have more than 1,048,576 elements plus
-  [`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md) (4 by default) for
-  every byte read so far
+  container exceeds the capacity of the container (or of `std::size_t`), or if an optimized array of `Z`, `T`, or `F` has
+  more than 1,048,576 elements

 ## Complexity

@@ -122,8 +119,6 @@ Linear in the size of the input.
 - [Parsing untrusted input](../../features/parsing/untrusted_input.md) - limits and safe handling of hostile data
 - [Binary values](../../features/binary_values.md) - how binary values and subtypes are handled
 - [`to_ubjson`](to_ubjson.md) - create a UBJSON serialization of a JSON value
- [`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md) -
-  set how many elements of arrays of `null`, `true`, or `false` the input may announce per byte
 - [`from_cbor`](from_cbor.md) - create a JSON value from an input in CBOR format
 - [`from_msgpack`](from_msgpack.md) - create a JSON value from an input in MessagePack format
 - [`from_bson`](from_bson.md) - create a JSON value from an input in BSON format
@@ -137,12 +132,6 @@ Linear in the size of the input.
 - Extended container support (1) to include types with lvalue-only ADL `begin`/`end` (matching `std::begin`/`std::end` semantics) in version 3.13.0.
 - Extended overload (2) to accept heterogeneous iterator+sentinel pairs (C++20 ranges support) in version 3.13.0.
 - Added `error_handler` parameter in version 3.13.0.
- Report `start_array(0)` to a SAX handler for an optimized array of type `N` (`[$N#n`), whatever its count, in version
-  3.13.0.
- Limited the total number of elements of optimized arrays of `Z`, `T`, and `F` in one input in version 3.13.0; the
-  number of elements per byte can be set with
-  [`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md), for example to read
-  files written by version 3.12.0 and earlier that exceed the default.

 !!! warning "Deprecation"

@@ -105,8 +105,6 @@ Linear in the size of the JSON value `j`.
 - [Binary formats](../../features/binary_formats/index.md) - overview and comparison of the supported binary formats
 - [Binary values](../../features/binary_values.md) - how binary values and subtypes are handled
 - [`from_ubjson`](from_ubjson.md) - create a JSON value from an input in UBJSON format
- [`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md) -
-  set how many elements of arrays of `null`, `true`, or `false` a reader accepts per byte of input
 - [`to_cbor`](to_cbor.md) - create a CBOR serialization of a JSON value
 - [`to_msgpack`](to_msgpack.md) - create a MessagePack serialization of a JSON value
 - [`to_bson`](to_bson.md) - create a BSON serialization of a JSON value
@@ -119,10 +117,5 @@ Linear in the size of the JSON value `j`.
 - Added `error_handler` parameter in version 3.13.0. Its default, `keep`, writes the bytes of a string or object key
  that is not valid UTF-8 unchanged, as before; `strict` (the default if
  [`JSON_STRICT_BINARY_UTF8`](../macros/json_strict_binary_utf8.md) is enabled) throws `type_error.316`.
- Writes arrays of `Z`, `T`, or `F` without the `$` type annotation (`[#n Z Z ...`) once their elements in one call
-  add up to more than 1,048,576, in version 3.13.0, so that `from_ubjson` can read the output back. Such output is
-  larger: 270,000 rows of 100 `null` values take 26.8 MB instead of 1.35 MB. The limit does not depend on
-  [`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md): a reader accepts at
-  least 1,048,576 elements whatever it is set to, so the writer follows that base only.
 - Throws `type_error.321` for a discarded value since version 3.13.0; previously, a discarded value nested in an
  array or object was silently skipped, producing invalid UBJSON.
@@ -26,8 +26,6 @@ header. See also the [macro overview page](../../features/macros.md).
  UBJSON, BJData, and BSON writers
 - [**JSON_STRICT_NUL_HANDLING**](json_strict_nul_handling.md) - opt in to rejecting a NUL byte in the input instead of
  treating it as end of input
- [**JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE**](json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md) - set how many elements of
-  UBJSON arrays of `null`, `true`, or `false` an input may announce per byte it has

 ## Language support

@@ -42,6 +40,8 @@ header. See also the [macro overview page](../../features/macros.md).
 - [**JSON_NO_IO**](json_no_io.md) - switch off functions relying on certain C++ I/O headers
 - [**JSON_NO_SIMD**](json_no_simd.md) - use only portable code instead of vector instructions (SSE2, SSSE3, NEON)
 - [**JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL**](json_no_thread_local.md) - switch off the use of `thread_local` storage
+- [**JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT**](json_recursion_depth_limit.md) - set how many nesting levels the operations on a value
+  recurse into on the call stack (default 128)
 - [**JSON_SKIP_UNSUPPORTED_COMPILER_CHECK**](json_skip_unsupported_compiler_check.md) - do not warn about unsupported compilers
 - [**JSON_USE_GLOBAL_UDLS**](json_use_global_udls.md) - place user-defined string literals (UDLs) into the global namespace
 - [**JSON_USE_SIMDUTF**](json_use_simdutf.md) - use the simdutf library to accelerate UTF-8 validation
@@ -45,6 +45,7 @@ Copying and comparing fall back to working without the call stack there, as they

 ## See also

+- [`JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT`](json_recursion_depth_limit.md) - set how many nesting levels the operations recurse into
 - [FAQ: Thread safety](../../home/faq.md#thread-safety) - thread-safety guarantees of the library
 - [Supported Macros](../../features/macros.md) - guide to all supported macros

@@ -0,0 +1,307 @@
+# JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT
+
+```cpp
+#define JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT /* value */
+```
+
+This macro sets how many nesting levels the operations that walk a value recurse into on the call stack. Beyond that,
+they continue with an explicit stack on the heap. The value is an integer constant from `0` to `254`; the default is
+`128`.
+
+The operations are copying a value, comparing two values, serializing with [`dump`](../basic_json/dump.md) or
+[`operator<<`](../operator_ltlt.md), hashing with `std::hash`, [`merge_patch`](../basic_json/merge_patch.md),
+[`update`](../basic_json/update.md) with `merge_objects`, [`diff`](../basic_json/diff.md),
+[`merge_diff`](../basic_json/merge_diff.md), converting a value to another specialization of `basic_json`, destroying a
+value, and the binary writers [`to_cbor`](../basic_json/to_cbor.md),
+[`to_msgpack`](../basic_json/to_msgpack.md), [`to_ubjson`](../basic_json/to_ubjson.md),
+[`to_bjdata`](../basic_json/to_bjdata.md), and [`to_bon8`](../basic_json/to_bon8.md). They share this one limit; none
+has
+a limit of its own. Recursing is the fastest way to walk a value, but a value nested deeply enough would exhaust the
+call
+stack, so the library recurses only as far as the limit and finishes the levels below with an explicit stack. This is
+what makes all of them safe for untrusted input
+(see [Nesting depth](../../features/parsing/untrusted_input.md#nesting-depth)). Parsing, the binary readers,
+[`flatten`](../basic_json/flatten.md), [`unflatten`](../basic_json/unflatten.md), and
+[`to_bson`](../basic_json/to_bson.md) always use an explicit stack and do not depend on the macro. The lockstep
+comparison of two [`json_view`](../basic_json_view/index.md) documents has a fixed bound of its own, 48 levels,
+and does not depend on it either.
+
+The call stack that these operations need grows with the limit: roughly *a few kilobytes plus a cost per level times the
+limit*, where the cost per level is up to about 2.3 KiB in an unoptimized and up to about 0.5 KiB in an optimized build
+(see [Stack needed](#stack-needed)). The default of `128` levels is tuned for threads with ordinary stacks of a few
+hundred kilobytes or more. Set a lower limit if your threads have small stacks (RTOS tasks, fibers, threads of the musl
+C
+library, which has a default stack of 128 KiB), or a higher limit to trade stack for speed on deeply nested values.
+
+The macro changes only how much stack is used and how fast the operations are. It never changes a result: every
+operation returns the same value for every setting of the limit, for values nested less deeply than the limit as well as
+for values nested more deeply.
+
+## Default definition
+
+The default value is `128`.
+
+```cpp
+#define JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT 128
+```
+
+When the macro is not defined, the library defines it to its default value.
+
+## Notes
+
+!!! note "Allowed values"
+
+    The value must be an integer constant expression from `0` to `254`; any other value (a negative number, a number
+    above `254`, a floating-point number such as `254.0`, or `true` or `false`) is rejected at compile time with an
+    error message that names the macro. (A character such as `'a'` is an integer, too, and is accepted as its code.)
+
+    - `0` is allowed, and means that every operation uses its explicit stack from the first level on and no operation
+      recurses over the nesting of a value at all. That needs a constant amount of call stack (at most 16 KiB in the
+      measurements below, for a value nested 20,000 levels deep) and is the setting for tiny stacks, at the price of
+      speed (see [Speed](#speed)).
+    - `254` is the largest allowed value. Copying a value and comparing two values (with `<=>`, or with the operators on
+      objects and arrays of a custom type) cannot pass the depth down as an argument, because the signatures of the
+      copy constructor and the operators are fixed. They count the levels they have descended into in a variable of type
+      `#!cpp std::uint8_t` that exists once per thread (see [`JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL`](json_no_thread_local.md)). Only
+      the levels that are descended into are counted, so the count never exceeds the limit, not even when user code (a
+      copy constructor of a custom base class, say) copies a value while a copy is going on. A byte holds `255` at
+      most, and the limit stays below that, so that the count cannot wrap around. (More levels would hardly be
+      useful: `254` levels need up to 576 KiB of stack in an unoptimized build already, twice as much as the
+      default.)
+
+### Stack needed
+
+The tables show the smallest stack that an operation needs, in KiB, at several limits, on a value that is nested
+more deeply than the limit (limit + 10 levels). Each cell shows the result for Clang (Apple clang 21) and for
+GCC 16, separated by a slash; both measured on macOS with arm64, compiling in C++20 mode. The operations run in a
+thread whose stack has the size given, and are not given any stack that they do not need: the value is built, and
+the result destroyed, outside of that thread. Stacks can only be set in steps of 16 KiB (the page size), so `16`
+means "16 KiB or less". A row stands for all operations listed; the table shows the largest value among them.
+
+Unoptimized (`-O0`):
+
+| Operation | limit 16 | limit 32 | limit 64 | limit 128 | limit 254 |
+|---|---:|---:|---:|---:|---:|
+| `dump()` and `dump(indent)`, `operator<<` | 48 / 32 | 80 / 64 | 144 / 128 | 288 / 256 | 576 / 512 |
+| copy construction and assignment | 32 / 16 | 48 / 32 | 112 / 80 | 224 / 144 | 432 / 304 |
+| `==` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 48 / 32 | 96 / 48 |
+| `<=>` (C++20) | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 32 | 64 / 64 | 144 / 128 |
+| `std::hash` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 32 | 80 / 64 | 160 / 128 |
+| `merge_patch`, `update(j, true)`, `patch` | 32 / 16 | 48 / 32 | 112 / 80 | 224 / 144 | 432 / 304 |
+| `diff` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 32 | 64 / 48 | 144 / 96 |
+| `merge_diff` | 16 / 16 | 48 / 32 | 80 / 48 | 176 / 112 | 352 / 224 |
+| `to_cbor`, `to_msgpack` | 16 / 16 | 32 / 16 | 64 / 32 | 112 / 80 | 224 / 160 |
+| `to_ubjson`, `to_bjdata` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 48 / 32 | 96 / 64 | 176 / 112 |
+| `to_bon8` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 16 | 64 / 48 |
+| conversion to another `basic_json` type | 32 / 16 | 64 / 32 | 112 / 80 | 224 / 144 | 448 / 304 |
+| destruction | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 32 |
+
+Optimized (`-O2`):
+
+| Operation | limit 16 | limit 32 | limit 64 | limit 128 | limit 254 |
+|---|---:|---:|---:|---:|---:|
+| `dump()` and `dump(indent)`, `operator<<` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 32 |
+| copy construction and assignment | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 32 | 64 / 48 |
+| `==` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 |
+| `<=>` (C++20) | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 48 / 16 |
+| `std::hash` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 48 | 80 / 80 |
+| `merge_patch`, `update(j, true)`, `patch` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 32 | 64 / 48 |
+| `diff` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 32 | 48 / 48 | 96 / 112 |
+| `merge_diff` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 48 / 32 | 96 / 64 |
+| `to_cbor`, `to_msgpack` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 |
+| `to_ubjson`, `to_bjdata` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 32 | 64 / 64 |
+| `to_bon8` | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 32 | 32 / 64 |
+| conversion to another `basic_json` type | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 32 / 48 | 64 / 96 |
+| destruction | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 | 16 / 16 |
+
+With a limit of `0`, every operation in the tables ran in a 16 KiB stack at `-O0` (Clang and GCC), on a value nested
+20,000 levels deep. The operations that do not depend on the macro (`flatten`, `unflatten`, `to_bson`) needed
+16 KiB or less at every limit.
+
+The rule of thumb is
+
+> stack needed ≈ a few KiB + cost per level × limit
+
+with a cost per level of up to 2.3 KiB (`dump` at `-O0` with Clang; 2.1 KiB with GCC), 1.7 KiB for copying and merging
+(1.3 KiB with GCC), and 0.1 to 0.5 KiB for most other operations at `-O0`; and 0.5 KiB or less at `-O2`. The numbers
+come from the difference between the limits `128` and `254` in the tables, so they are rough: other compilers,
+other targets (the frames of x86-64 code are about as large), other standard libraries, `JSON_DIAGNOSTICS`, and
+sanitizers change them. Measure with your own tool chain (see the example below) rather than relying on the tables.
+The stack that your own code and the operating system need comes on top of these numbers.
+
+Which limit to choose, for the stack that you can spare for the library (the largest limit of those measured
+for which the slowest operation needs at most that much):
+
+| Stack for the library | optimized (`-O2`) | unoptimized (`-O0`) |
+|---|---:|---:|
+| 32 KiB | 64 | 0 |
+| 64 KiB | 128 | 16 |
+| 128 KiB (the default stack of threads on musl) | 254 | 32 |
+| 256 KiB | 254 | 64 |
+| 512 KiB | 254 | 128 |
+| 1 MiB or more | 254 | 254 |
+
+### Speed
+
+Operations are faster the more of a value they handle with plain recursion. The levels below the limit are handled with
+an explicit stack, which has to be kept on the heap and costs more per level. The macro therefore trades speed against
+stack.
+
+The table shows the time of copying a value (including destroying the copy), of `==` on two equal values, of `dump`, and
+of `std::hash` for several limits, relative to the default of `128` (`1.00` means the same time; more is slower). It was
+measured with Clang 21 at `-O2` in C++17 mode on macOS with arm64, as the best of seven runs of each setting (two
+rounds, best of both). The documents are ordinary JSON files that are nested 7 (`canada.json`), 8
+(`citm_catalog.json`), 10 (`twitter.json`), and 2 levels deep (`jeopardy.json`); the other values are one array or object
+with one member per level, nested 1,000 and 100,000 levels deep. The absolute time at the limit `128` is given in the
+third column. Differences of up to about 0.1 are noise: a different limit changes the layout of the compiled code, and
+timings of the same binary vary by about as much. The slow columns (limits 0 and 1) vary more: repeating `std::hash` on
+`canada.json` gave 1.27 to 1.30 for limit 0 and 1.4 to 1.9 for limit 1, so read the cells of those two columns as
+accurate to about 0.3.
+
+| Value | Operation | limit 128 (absolute) | limit 0 | limit 1 | limit 16 | limit 254 |
+|---|---|---:|---:|---:|---:|---:|
+| `canada.json` (2.1 MB) | copy | 3.5 ms | 1.80 | 1.80 | 0.99 | 1.00 |
+| `canada.json` (2.1 MB) | `==` | 350.5 µs | 2.36 | 2.38 | 1.00 | 0.99 |
+| `canada.json` (2.1 MB) | `dump` | 2.4 ms | 1.11 | 1.11 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+| `canada.json` (2.1 MB) | `std::hash` | 920.2 µs | 1.33 | 1.59 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+| `citm_catalog.json` (1.7 MB) | copy | 1.8 ms | 1.38 | 1.36 | 1.00 | 0.99 |
+| `citm_catalog.json` (1.7 MB) | `==` | 275.5 µs | 1.31 | 1.31 | 0.99 | 1.00 |
+| `citm_catalog.json` (1.7 MB) | `dump` | 314.6 µs | 1.24 | 1.23 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+| `citm_catalog.json` (1.7 MB) | `std::hash` | 309.1 µs | 1.77 | 1.42 | 1.06 | 1.05 |
+| `twitter.json` (0.6 MB) | copy | 865.7 µs | 1.45 | 1.47 | 1.01 | 1.00 |
+| `twitter.json` (0.6 MB) | `==` | 135.8 µs | 1.26 | 1.23 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+| `twitter.json` (0.6 MB) | `dump` | 224.6 µs | 1.12 | 1.12 | 1.01 | 1.00 |
+| `twitter.json` (0.6 MB) | `std::hash` | 132.9 µs | 1.28 | 1.27 | 1.03 | 1.04 |
+| `jeopardy.json` (53 MB) | copy | 111.1 ms | 1.22 | 1.25 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+| `jeopardy.json` (53 MB) | `==` | 23.5 ms | 1.29 | 1.53 | 1.07 | 1.00 |
+| `jeopardy.json` (53 MB) | `dump` | 33.2 ms | 1.14 | 1.34 | 1.03 | 1.01 |
+| `jeopardy.json` (53 MB) | `std::hash` | 19.9 ms | 1.17 | 1.52 | 1.05 | 1.00 |
+| arrays, 1,000 levels | copy | 69.9 µs | 0.95 | 0.98 | 0.92 | 0.99 |
+| arrays, 1,000 levels | `==` | 10.4 µs | 1.02 | 1.01 | 0.96 | 1.00 |
+| arrays, 1,000 levels | `dump` | 9.6 µs | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.97 | 1.06 |
+| arrays, 1,000 levels | `std::hash` | 16.9 µs | 1.00 | 1.01 | 1.01 | 0.98 |
+| objects, 1,000 levels | copy | 77.1 µs | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.97 | 1.03 |
+| objects, 1,000 levels | `==` | 12.0 µs | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 1.07 |
+| objects, 1,000 levels | `dump` | 12.6 µs | 0.97 | 0.95 | 0.98 | 1.01 |
+| objects, 1,000 levels | `std::hash` | 17.3 µs | 0.99 | 1.01 | 0.98 | 1.00 |
+| arrays, 100,000 levels | copy | 6.4 ms | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+| arrays, 100,000 levels | `==` | 1.1 ms | 1.01 | 1.03 | 1.00 | 1.06 |
+| arrays, 100,000 levels | `dump` | 917.9 µs | 1.01 | 1.01 | 1.02 | 1.01 |
+| arrays, 100,000 levels | `std::hash` | 1.7 ms | 1.04 | 1.05 | 0.99 | 0.99 |
+| objects, 100,000 levels | copy | 7.5 ms | 0.99 | 1.02 | 1.01 | 0.99 |
+| objects, 100,000 levels | `==` | 1.3 ms | 1.02 | 1.09 | 1.08 | 0.96 |
+| objects, 100,000 levels | `dump` | 1.2 ms | 1.06 | 0.99 | 1.01 | 0.99 |
+| objects, 100,000 levels | `std::hash` | 1.8 ms | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
+
+The results are as follows.
+
+- A limit of `16` or more does not change the speed of ordinary documents (differences are within noise), because they
+  are not nested more deeply than that anyway. A document nested more deeply than the limit is walked partly with the
+  explicit stack.
+- A limit of `0` or `1` makes the operations on ordinary documents 1.1 to 2.4 times as slow, because even their first
+  levels are handled with the explicit stack. The slowdown is largest for `==` on a document of many small containers
+  (`canada.json`: 2.4 times) and for copying (up to 1.8 times).
+- For values that are nested far more deeply than any limit (1,000 and 100,000 levels deep), the limit makes no
+  measurable difference: almost all of the levels are handled with the explicit stack for every setting.
+  Raising the limit gains nothing for them, and lowering it costs nothing.
+
+!!! note "Other macros"
+
+    - With [`JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL`](json_no_thread_local.md) defined (or for Clang targeting MinGW, where the library
+      defines it by itself), copying and comparing never descend, so for them the limit does not matter. The other
+      operations still recurse as many levels as the limit says. The range of the limit is the same.
+    - The macro is not part of the [ABI tag](../../features/namespace.md), as `JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL` is not, and it is
+      not undefined at the end of `json.hpp`.
+
+!!! warning "Use the same value in every translation unit"
+
+    All translation units of a program that include the library must define the same value. Otherwise, the program
+    violates the One Definition Rule: the function `nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit()` and all the functions
+    that
+    use it are defined differently in different translation units. The linker keeps one definition of each function that
+    several translation units define, and every caller then recurses as far as that definition says, whatever value
+    its own translation unit defined. Each function uses the limit of whichever translation unit's copy was kept, and
+    which one that is is not specified.
+
+    Mixing values cannot corrupt the byte per thread that counts the levels of copying and comparing: each limit
+    is at most `254`, and all of them stop counting at their own limit, so the count never exceeds `254`, whichever
+    translation unit's definition runs. The counter exists once per thread and `basic_json` specialization, and is
+    shared by all translation units. Nor can mixing values change any result, as no result depends on the limit. What
+    changes is how much stack is used and how fast the operations are. Nevertheless, avoid it: the program has undefined
+    behavior as far as the C++ standard is concerned.
+
+## Examples
+
+??? example "Example: lower the limit"
+
+    The example nests an array 5,000 levels deep. With the limit set to 16, the library recurses over the first 16
+    levels
+    and over the rest uses an explicit stack. The results are those of the default limit.
+
+    ```cpp
+    --8<-- "examples/json_recursion_depth_limit.cpp"
+    ```
+
+    Output:
+
+    ```
+    --8<-- "examples/json_recursion_depth_limit.output"
+    ```
+
+??? example "Example: find out how much stack an operation needs"
+
+    The program runs `dump()` on a value nested `depth` levels deep in a thread with a stack of `kib` KiB. Compile it
+    with the options and the limit that you use, e.g. `-DJSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT=64`, run it with `depth` set to the
+    limit plus 10 and decreasing values of `kib` (the stack size must be a multiple of the page size, often 4 or 16
+    KiB),
+    and note the smallest stack with which it still finishes. That is how the tables above were measured.
+
+    ```cpp
+    #include <cstdlib>
+    #include <iostream>
+    #include <string>
+    #include <utility>
+    #include <pthread.h>
+    #include <nlohmann/json.hpp>
+
+    static nlohmann::json value;
+
+    static void* run(void*)
+    {
+        std::cout << "dump() ok, " << value.dump().size() << " bytes\n";
+        return nullptr;
+    }
+
+    int main(int argc, char** argv)
+    {
+        const int depth = std::atoi(argv[1]);
+        const std::size_t kib = static_cast<std::size_t>(std::atoi(argv[2]));
+
+        // built on the main thread, without recursion
+        value = 1;
+        for (int i = 0; i < depth; ++i)
+        {
+            nlohmann::json outer = nlohmann::json::array();
+            outer.push_back(std::move(value));
+            value = std::move(outer);
+        }
+
+        pthread_attr_t attr;
+        pthread_attr_init(&attr);
+        pthread_attr_setstacksize(&attr, kib * 1024);
+        pthread_t thread;
+        pthread_create(&thread, &attr, run, nullptr);
+        pthread_join(thread, nullptr);
+    }
+    ```
+
+## See also
+
+- [Nesting depth](../../features/parsing/untrusted_input.md#nesting-depth) - how the library handles deeply nested
+  values
+- [`JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL`](json_no_thread_local.md) - switch off the use of `thread_local` storage
+- [Supported Macros](../../features/macros.md) - guide to all supported macros
+
+## Version history
+
+- Added in version 3.13.0.
@@ -1,173 +0,0 @@
-# JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE
-
-```cpp
-#define JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE /* value */
-```
-
-[`from_ubjson`](../basic_json/from_ubjson.md) and [`sax_parse`](../basic_json/sax_parse.md) refuse an input in which the
-optimized arrays of type `Z` (null), `T` (true), and `F` (false) together have more than 1,048,576 elements plus
-`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE` for every byte read so far, with
-[`out_of_range.408`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range408). The macro sets that number. It is the
-elements per byte that the input is allowed to announce without paying for them: an element of such an array is a
-single marker that is implied by the array's `$Z#n` header, so a few bytes can announce a million values (see
-[Parsing Untrusted Input](../../features/parsing/untrusted_input.md)).
-
-The macro only matters for input that was not written by this library 3.13.0 or later:
-[`to_ubjson`](../basic_json/to_ubjson.md) never writes more than the base of 1,048,576 elements in typed arrays of
-these types, and a reader accepts at least that many whatever the macro is. Its main use is reading files written by
-version 3.12.0 and earlier, which did not limit them (see
-[below](#reading-files-written-by-version-3120-and-earlier)).
-
-## Default definition
-
-The default value is `4`.
-
-```cpp
-#define JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE 4
-```
-
-## Notes
-
-!!! info "Allowed values"
-
-    The value must be a **positive integer** (a value of `0` would not allow any element beyond the base, and a negative
-    or fractional rate has no meaning). Any other value is a compile-time error with a message that names the macro:
-
-    ```
-    error: static assertion failed: JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE must be a positive integer
-    error: static assertion failed: JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE must be an integer (not bool or a character type)
-    error: static assertion failed: JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE must not be wider than std::uintmax_t
-    ```
-
-    The first is reported for `0` and negative values, the second for values such as `4.5`, `1e3`, `true`, or `'a'`, and
-    the third for an integer type that is wider than `#!cpp std::uintmax_t` (for example `unsigned __int128`). A value
-    that is larger than the largest `#!cpp std::size_t` is treated as that largest value, so that a project can use one
-    spelling, for example `0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFu`, for 32-bit and 64-bit targets.
-
-!!! info "Large values: the limit is switched off"
-
-    The limit is the base plus the rate times the bytes read. It saturates at the largest `#!cpp std::size_t` instead of
-    overflowing, for any rate and any input size (also with a 32-bit `#!cpp std::size_t`), so a large value never makes
-    the limit smaller. A rate of **at least 131,072** (`1048576 / 8`) effectively switches the limit for the whole
-    input off: the shortest header of an array of more than 32,767 elements takes 8 bytes (`$Z#l` and four bytes of the
-    count, inside an optimized array of arrays; 9 bytes, `[$Z#l`, at the top level), and a shorter header (`$Z#I` and
-    two bytes) can announce at most 32,767. No array can then announce more than the rate times the bytes of its own
-    header. With a rate of 131,071 that is not so: rows of 1,048,576 elements in 8 bytes each gain 8 elements per row,
-    and a table of 278,527 such rows (2.2 MB) is the shortest input that is refused.
-
-!!! info "What the macro does not change"
-
-    - The limit of **one array** stays at 1,048,576 elements
-      ([`out_of_range.408`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range408), "excessive array size"), whatever
-      the macro is. A value that switches the whole-input limit off does not allow a single array of 1,048,577
-      elements.
-    - The **base** of 1,048,576 elements is a fixed constant, the same as the limit of one array. An array that was
-      accepted on its own before the whole-input limit existed is therefore still accepted at the start of an input.
-    - The **writer** is not affected. [`to_ubjson`](../basic_json/to_ubjson.md) follows the base only: it writes a typed
-      array of `Z`, `T`, or `F` only while the arrays written so far and this one stay within 1,048,576 elements, and
-      writes the elements one by one otherwise. That is within the limit of every reader, because the limit is never
-      below the base.
-    - **Objects** and arrays of other types are not counted: every member of an object has a key, and every element of
-      another type takes at least a byte of input.
-    - [`from_bjdata`](../basic_json/from_bjdata.md) is not affected: BJData has no optimized arrays of these types.
-
-!!! info "Memory"
-
-    A value takes 16 bytes in a DOM, so every element that the limit lets pass costs memory. Beyond the first 1,048,576
-    elements (about 33 MB: 16 bytes per element, and a vector that grows by reallocation needs the old and the new
-    storage at once), a malicious input of `n` bytes can take **about `20 * K * n` bytes** of memory in a DOM, where `K`
-    is the value of the macro. The measurements below read inputs that are at the limit, with containers of `9 * K`
-    elements (`[$Z#l` and a count, 9 bytes each), with `from_ubjson` on macOS, arm64, compiled with `-O2`. The numbers
-    on other systems differ by the allocator; the 16 bytes per element are the lower bound.
-
-    | `K`   | bytes of memory per byte of input | memory for 1 MB of input |
-    |------:|----------------------------------:|-------------------------:|
-    |     1 |                                25 |                    25 MB |
-    |     4 |                                81 |                    81 MB |
-    |    16 |                               312 |                   312 MB |
-    |    64 |                             1,226 |                   1.2 GB |
-    |   256 |                             5,493 |                   5.5 GB |
-
-    A SAX handler receives the same number of events, and no memory beyond what it keeps. Choose the smallest value that
-    accepts your files, not a large one, if the input comes from an untrusted source: a value of 131,072 or more
-    switches the limit of the whole input off, so that every 8 bytes of input can announce another 1,048,576 values,
-    the limit of one array.
-
-!!! warning "Define it before the include, in every translation unit"
-
-    This macro must be defined **before** including `<nlohmann/json.hpp>`. Defining it after the include has no effect.
-
-    The value is compiled into the member functions of the binary reader, which are inline, but it is **not**
-    encoded in the [namespace](../../features/namespace.md) of the library (there is no ABI tag for it). It must
-    have the same value in every translation unit of a program (for example by defining it on the command line or in
-    a common header); translation units with different values violate the One Definition Rule, which is undefined
-    behavior (no diagnostic is required; in practice the linker keeps one definition of each function, so some
-    inputs are read with one value and some with the other).
-
-### Reading files written by version 3.12.0 and earlier
-
-Version 3.12.0 wrote an array of `Z`, `T`, or `F` of any length in the optimized form, and a table of equal rows as an
-optimized array of optimized arrays: a header of `[$[#` and the number of rows (`i` or `U` and 1 byte, `I` and 2 bytes, or
-`l` and 4 bytes: `h` = 6, 7, or 9 bytes in all for up to 255, 32,767, or more rows), then for every row `$Z#` and its count:
-5 bytes for up to 255 elements (`U`), 6 bytes for up to 32,767 (`I`), and 8 bytes above (`l`). Every row announces `N`
-elements for the `b` bytes of its header, so the limit grows by `K * b` and the number of elements by `N` per row.
-
- A table is never refused if its rows have at most `K * b` elements each: at most 5 `K` for rows of up to 255
-  elements (20 at the default of `K = 4`), at most 6 `K` for rows of 256 to 32,767 (rows of 1,000 need `K >= 167`),
-  and at most 8 `K` above.
- Otherwise the first `(1,048,576 + h * K) / (N - K * b)` rows are accepted, rounded down (`h` as above; 7 for the
-  numbers here). For the default, a table of rows of 1,000 `null` values is read up to row 1,074 (the input of the first
-  example below has 1,100); for `K = 1`, up to row 1,054; for `K = 16`, up to row 1,160.
- In general, the smallest value that accepts an input is the largest of
-  `(the elements of the arrays so far - 1,048,576) / (the bytes read when the header of the last of them has been
-  read)` over all arrays, rounded up. For 1,100 rows of 1,000 elements that is
-  `(1,100,000 - 1,048,576) / 6,607 = 7.8`, so `K = 8`.
-
-To read such a file, define the macro to the smallest value that accepts it before the include (or with
-`-DJSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE=8`), and see the table above for what that value allows an untrusted input to
-cost. A file can be converted once: read it with the larger value and write it again with `to_ubjson`, which writes no
-typed array that a reader with the default value would refuse, so that the result does not need the macro.
-
-## Examples
-
-??? example "Example: default limit"
-
-    The table of 1,100 rows of 1,000 `null` values (6,607 bytes) that version 3.12.0 wrote announces 1,100,000 values,
-    which is more than 1,048,576 plus 4 for every byte read.
-
-    ```cpp
-    --8<-- "examples/ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.cpp"
-    ```
-
-    Output:
-
-    ```
-    --8<-- "examples/ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.output"
-    ```
-
-??? example "Example: raised limit"
-
-    With 16 elements per byte the same table is read. The limit of one array still applies.
-
-    ```cpp
-    --8<-- "examples/ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte_raised.cpp"
-    ```
-
-    Output:
-
-    ```
-    --8<-- "examples/ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte_raised.output"
-    ```
-
-## See also
-
- [`from_ubjson`](../basic_json/from_ubjson.md) - create a JSON value from a UBJSON serialization
- [`to_ubjson`](../basic_json/to_ubjson.md) - create a UBJSON serialization of a JSON value
- [`sax_parse`](../basic_json/sax_parse.md) - generate SAX events
- [UBJSON](../../features/binary_formats/ubjson.md) - the format and its limits in the library
- [Parsing Untrusted Input](../../features/parsing/untrusted_input.md) - limits and checks for input you do not control
- [`out_of_range.408`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range408) - the exception that reports the limit
-
-## Version history
-
- Added in version 3.13.0.
@@ -50,15 +50,18 @@ flowchart LR
  enabled explicitly. Invalid UTF-8 is rejected.
 - **Errors are reported, not ignored.** Malformed input results in a [`parse_error`](../home/exceptions.md#parse-errors)
  with the byte position of the error. Binary readers do not trust announced sizes: strings and binary values grow
-  only as bytes are actually read, arrays reserve at most a fixed number of elements up front (and all of them
-  together no more than the input read so far can back), and sizes that no container can hold are rejected.
+  only as bytes are actually read, arrays reserve at most a fixed number of elements up front, and sizes that no
+  container can hold are rejected.
 - **Memory is owned by values.** Each `basic_json` value owns its content, and there is no manual memory management in
-  user code. The destructor does not recurse, so destroying a deeply nested value does not exhaust the stack.
+  user code. The destructor recurses only over a bounded number of nesting levels and then continues without the call
+  stack, so destroying a deeply nested value does not exhaust the stack.
 - **Bounded recursion.** The JSON parser and the binary readers keep their state in explicit stacks instead of
  recursing per nesting level. Operations that walk a value, such as [`dump`](../api/basic_json/dump.md), copying,
  comparison, hashing, [`merge_patch`](../api/basic_json/merge_patch.md), [`diff`](../api/basic_json/diff.md),
  [`flatten`](../api/basic_json/flatten.md), and the binary writers, recurse only up to a fixed depth and continue with
-  an explicit stack below it. Applications that process untrusted input can limit its nesting depth with a
+  an explicit stack below it. The depth is 128 levels by default and can be changed with
+  [`JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT`](../api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit.md), for example to run on a small stack.
+  Applications that process untrusted input can limit its nesting depth with a
  [parser callback](../features/parsing/parser_callbacks.md).
 - **Invariants are checked.** The class invariant (for instance, that the pointer for the stored type is never null) is
  checked with runtime assertions throughout the test suite.
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+#include <functional>
+#include <iostream>
+#include <utility>
+
+// walk over at most 16 nesting levels on the call stack, and over the rest with an explicit stack
+#define JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT 16
+#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>
+
+using json = nlohmann::json;
+
+int main()
+{
+    // an array nested 5,000 levels deep, built without recursion
+    json j = 1;
+    for (int i = 0; i < 5000; ++i)
+    {
+        json outer = json::array();
+        outer.push_back(std::move(j));
+        j = std::move(outer);
+    }
+
+    // the results are those of any other limit
+    const json copy = j;
+    std::cout << std::boolalpha;
+    std::cout << "limit: " << JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT << '\n';
+    std::cout << "copy equals original: " << (copy == j) << '\n';
+    std::cout << "length of dump(): " << j.dump().size() << '\n';
+    std::cout << "same hash: " << (std::hash<json> {}(copy) == std::hash<json> {}(j)) << '\n';
+}
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+limit: 16
+copy equals original: true
+length of dump(): 10001
+same hash: true
@@ -1,34 +0,0 @@
-#include <cstdint>
-#include <iostream>
-#include <vector>
-#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>
-
-using json = nlohmann::json;
-
-// the bytes version 3.12.0 wrote for a table of 1100 rows of 1000 null values
-// with to_ubjson(table, true, true): `[$[#I` and the number of rows, then
-// `$Z#I` and the number of elements for every row
-std::vector<std::uint8_t> table_written_by_3_12_0()
-{
-    std::vector<std::uint8_t> bytes = {'[', '$', '[', '#', 'I', 1100 >> 8, 1100 & 0xFF};
-    for (int row = 0; row < 1100; ++row)
-    {
-        bytes.insert(bytes.end(), {'$', 'Z', '#', 'I', 1000 >> 8, 1000 & 0xFF});
-    }
-    return bytes;
-}
-
-int main()
-{
-    try
-    {
-        // 6607 bytes announce 1,100,000 values, more than 1,048,576 plus 4 for
-        // every byte read (the limit is exceeded in row 1075)
-        json table = json::from_ubjson(table_written_by_3_12_0());
-        std::cout << table.size() << " rows\n";
-    }
-    catch (const json::out_of_range& e)
-    {
-        std::cout << e.what() << '\n';
-    }
-}
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-[json.exception.out_of_range.408] syntax error while parsing UBJSON size: excessive number of elements without payload
@@ -1,42 +0,0 @@
-#include <cstdint>
-#include <iostream>
-#include <vector>
-
-// accept 16 values per byte of input instead of 4; define the macro before the
-// first inclusion of the header, and to the same value in every translation unit
-#define JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE 16
-#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>
-
-using json = nlohmann::json;
-
-// the bytes version 3.12.0 wrote for a table of 1100 rows of 1000 null values
-// with to_ubjson(table, true, true): `[$[#I` and the number of rows, then
-// `$Z#I` and the number of elements for every row
-std::vector<std::uint8_t> table_written_by_3_12_0()
-{
-    std::vector<std::uint8_t> bytes = {'[', '$', '[', '#', 'I', 1100 >> 8, 1100 & 0xFF};
-    for (int row = 0; row < 1100; ++row)
-    {
-        bytes.insert(bytes.end(), {'$', 'Z', '#', 'I', 1000 >> 8, 1000 & 0xFF});
-    }
-    return bytes;
-}
-
-int main()
-{
-    // 6607 bytes announce 1,100,000 values, which is below 1,048,576 plus 16
-    // for every byte read
-    json table = json::from_ubjson(table_written_by_3_12_0());
-    std::cout << table.size() << " rows of " << table[0].size() << " values\n";
-
-    // a single container is still limited to 1,048,576 elements
-    const std::vector<std::uint8_t> too_long = {'[', '$', 'Z', '#', 'l', 0x00, 0x10, 0x00, 0x01};
-    try
-    {
-        json j = json::from_ubjson(too_long);
-    }
-    catch (const json::out_of_range& e)
-    {
-        std::cout << e.what() << '\n';
-    }
-}
@@ -1,2 +0,0 @@
-1100 rows of 1000 values
-[json.exception.out_of_range.408] syntax error while parsing UBJSON size: excessive array size
@@ -119,27 +119,12 @@ The library uses the following mapping from JSON values types to UBJSON types ac
    receiving side is immediately informed on the number of elements of the container.

    An array whose type marker is `Z` (null), `T` (true) or `F` (false) stores no payload at all, because the marker
-    already is the value. Its declared count is therefore the only thing that decides how much memory the receiving
-    side allocates, and a handful of bytes can describe billions of elements. `from_ubjson` rejects such an array with
+    already is the value. Its declared count is therefore the only thing that decides how much memory the receiving side
+    allocates, and a handful of bytes can describe billions of elements. `from_ubjson` rejects such an array with
    [`out_of_range.408`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range408) when the count exceeds 1,048,576
-    (`1 << 20`), or when the counts of all such arrays in the input add up to more than 1,048,576 plus _K_ for every byte
-    read so far, where _K_ is the value of the macro
-    [`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../../api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md) (4 by
-    default). `to_ubjson` therefore writes an array of these types in the counted but untyped form when it is longer
-    than that, or when it would bring the total of the typed arrays written so far above 1,048,576: the `$` type
-    marker is dropped, the `#` count is kept, and every element is written with its own marker 
-    (`[#l 1048577 Z Z ...`), so everything it produces can be read back. Only input from another encoder, or written by version 3.12.0
-    and earlier of this library, can exceed the limit: for example, 1,100 rows of 1,000 `null` values or 210,000 rows
-    of 25, each with a `$Z` annotation. Version 3.12.0 writes a row in 5 bytes (6 above 255 elements, 8 above 32,767),
-    which raises the limit by 5 _K_ (6 _K_, 8 _K_), so rows of up to 5 _K_ values (20 at the default) are never
-    rejected. To read such a file, define the macro to a larger value (`8` is enough for the 1,100 rows of 1,000
-    `null` values; memory for the arrays then rises to about 20 _K_ bytes per byte of input in a DOM); the macro's
-    page explains how to choose a value and what it costs. The limit of one array of 1,048,576 elements does not
-    depend on the macro. Objects and untyped counted arrays are not subject to this limit.
-
-    An optimized array of type `N` (no-op) is empty whatever its count is, because a no-op is not a value. Its count is
-    not passed on: `sax_parse` reports `start_array(0)` (versions before 3.13.0 reported the declared count), and the DOM
-    parser reserves nothing for it.
+    (`1 << 20`), and `to_ubjson` writes longer arrays of these types in the counted but untyped form: the `$` type marker is
+    dropped, the `#` count is kept, and every element is written with its own marker (`[#l 1048577 Z Z ...`), so any value
+    it produces can be read back. Objects and untyped counted arrays are not subject to this limit.

 !!! info "Binary values"

@@ -195,13 +180,10 @@ The library maps UBJSON types to JSON value types as follows:

    Every well-formed UBJSON value can be converted to a JSON value, with these exceptions: a high-precision number
    outside the range of `number_float_t` ([`out_of_range.406`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range406)),
-    optimized arrays of `Z`, `T`, or `F` with more elements than the limit allows (1,048,576 plus
-    [`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../../api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md), 4 by default,
-    per byte read),
-    and a count that exceeds the capacity of the container
-    ([`out_of_range.408`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range408)). High-precision numbers that do not
-    fit an integer type are stored as floating-point numbers and may lose precision. Ill-formed input is rejected with a
-    parse error.
+    an optimized array of `Z`, `T`, or `F` with more than 1,048,576 elements, and a count that exceeds the capacity of the
+    container ([`out_of_range.408`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range408)). High-precision numbers that
+    do not fit an integer type are stored as floating-point numbers and may lose precision. Ill-formed input is rejected
+    with a parse error.

 !!! info "Duplicate object keys"

@@ -198,6 +198,16 @@ this is planned to become the default in version 4.0.0.

 See [full documentation of `JSON_PRECISE_STREAM_POSITION`](../api/macros/json_precise_stream_position.md).

+## `JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT`
+
+Sets the number of nesting levels that the operations walking a value (copying, comparing, serializing, hashing,
+merging, diffing, converting, destroying, and the binary writers) recurse into on the call stack before they continue
+with an explicit stack on the heap. The default is `128`; allowed are the integers from `0` to `254`. Lower it for
+threads with small stacks, raise it to trade stack for speed. Results are the same for every setting; the value must be
+the same in all translation units of a program.
+
+See [full documentation of `JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT`](../api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit.md).
+
 ## `JSON_SKIP_LIBRARY_VERSION_CHECK`

 When defined, the library will not create a compiler warning when a different version of the library was already
@@ -251,16 +261,6 @@ This macro overrides `#!cpp try` calls inside the library.

 See [full documentation of `JSON_TRY_USER`](../api/macros/json_throw_user.md).

-## `JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`
-
-Sets how many elements of optimized UBJSON arrays of `Z` (null), `T` (true), and `F` (false) a reader accepts for
-every byte of input it has read, on top of a base of 1,048,576 elements. These arrays have no payload, so a few bytes
-can announce a million values. The value must be a positive integer; the default is `4`, and a value of 131,072 or
-more switches the limit of the whole input off. The limit of 1,048,576 elements for a single array always applies. The
-macro is not part of the [ABI tag](namespace.md): use the same value in every translation unit.
-
-See [full documentation of `JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md).
-
 ## `JSON_USE_IMPLICIT_CONVERSIONS`

 When defined to `0`, implicit conversions are switched off. By default, implicit conversions are switched on.
@@ -54,10 +54,32 @@ Once a value has been parsed, operations that walk it recursively — serializin
 [`dump`](../../api/basic_json/dump.md), hashing it, copying it, comparing two values with `#!cpp ==`, `#!cpp <`, or (in
 C++20) `#!cpp <=>`, merging with [`update`](../../api/basic_json/update.md), applying a
 [`merge_patch`](../../api/basic_json/merge_patch.md), creating a patch with [`diff`](../../api/basic_json/diff.md) or
-[`merge_diff`](../../api/basic_json/merge_diff.md), [`flatten`](../../api/basic_json/flatten.md), and the binary
-writers (`to_cbor`, `to_msgpack`, ...) — descend at most 128 levels on the call stack and continue
-below that with an explicit stack instead, so none of them can exhaust the stack either, however deeply the value is
-nested. Destroying a value (its destructor) never recurses at all, regardless of nesting depth, for the same reason.
+[`merge_diff`](../../api/basic_json/merge_diff.md), converting it to another `basic_json` type, destroying it, and the
+binary writers (`to_cbor`, `to_msgpack`, ...) — descend at most
+[`JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT`](../../api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit.md) levels on the call stack, 128 by default,
+and continue below that with an explicit stack on the heap. So the call stack does not grow with the nesting depth of the
+value, however deeply it is nested. ([`flatten`](../../api/basic_json/flatten.md),
+[`unflatten`](../../api/basic_json/unflatten.md), and [`to_bson`](../../api/basic_json/to_bson.md) never use the call
+stack for the nesting.)
+
+The call stack still needs room for the levels that are recursed into, and the default limit assumes a stack of ordinary
+size. The stack that an operation needs is roughly proportional to the limit; with the default of 128 levels, the most
+demanding operation (`dump` in an unoptimized build) needed up to 288 KiB, and an optimized build needed 48 KiB or less,
+in measurements on macOS with arm64. The most demanding operation needed this much stack at the limits `0`, `32`,
+`128`, and `254`:
+
+| Stack needed, in KiB | limit 0 | limit 32 | limit 128 (default) | limit 254 |
+|---|---:|---:|---:|---:|
+| unoptimized build (`-O0`) | 16 or less | 80 | 288 | 576 |
+| optimized build (`-O2`) | 16 or less | 16 or less | 48 | 112 |
+
+A thread with a smaller stack (a task of a real-time operating system, a fiber, or a thread of the musl C library, whose
+default stack is 128 KiB) can still overflow its stack on deeply nested input, which is why the limit can be lowered:
+define `JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT` to a smaller value, down to `0`, before including the library. Such a limit changes
+only the stack that is needed and the speed (values nested more deeply than the limit are walked more slowly), never a
+result. See the [documentation of the macro](../../api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit.md) for the complete tables,
+the speed, and the rules for choosing a value. Destroying a value (its destructor) recurses over the same number of
+levels and then continues without the call stack, and needs 32 KiB or less at every limit.

 ## Input size

@@ -71,38 +93,11 @@ For the binary formats, an announced size is never trusted outright:
  actually consumed, rather than allocating the announced length up front — a truncated input runs out of bytes
  (reported as a parse error) instead of triggering an oversized allocation.
 - When an array announces its number of elements and the array container supports `reserve()` (as `#!cpp std::vector`,
-  the default, does), the DOM parser reserves storage for them before the elements are read, but for at most 16384
-  elements per array, regardless of how large the announced count is; further elements still grow the container
-  normally as they are read. The arrays that are open at the same time hold their storage at the same time, and an
-  announcement is not backed by input when it is read, so the elements reserved for all arrays of one input together
-  may not exceed 65,536 plus 2 for every byte of input read so far; an array that announces more gets what is left
-  of that and grows as its elements arrive. An element takes at least one byte of input, so the elements of the
-  arrays that were read use up what was reserved for them, and only arrays that are nested deeply, with an array as
-  their first element, can announce more than is left. For a truncated or hostile input, the storage that
-  announcements can hold is therefore at most (65,536 + 2 per byte of input) values, that is about 1 MiB plus 32 bytes
-  per byte of input with 16-byte values (a value is larger with `JSON_DIAGNOSTICS` or `JSON_DIAGNOSTIC_POSITIONS`, 24 to
-  40 bytes, and so is the bound). For example, 100,000 nested CBOR array headers `99 40 00` (300,000 bytes) that
-  announce 16384 elements each peaked at 23 MiB, against 1.65 GiB if every array reserved what it announced and 12 MiB
-  with version 3.12.0, which reserved nothing.
-  A [SAX](../../api/json_sax/index.md) handler is not affected: it is told the announced number of elements.
+  the default, does), the library reserves storage for at most 16384 of them upfront, regardless of how large the
+  announced count is; further elements still grow the container normally as they are read.
 - An announced array or object size that exceeds what the target container could ever hold (its `max_size()`) is
  rejected immediately as [`out_of_range.408`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range408), without
  attempting to allocate anything.
- A [UBJSON](../binary_formats/ubjson.md) array of the no-op type (`[$N#<n>`) is empty whatever count it declares: a
-  SAX handler is told `start_array(0)` and the DOM parser reserves nothing.
- A UBJSON array of type `Z`, `T` or `F` has no payload, so its announced count is not bounded by the input. One array
-  may announce at most 1,048,576 elements, and all such arrays of one input together may contain at most 1,048,576
-  elements plus _K_ for every byte read so far (checked when each array's header has been read), where _K_ is the
-  value of the macro
-  [`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../../api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md), 4 by
-  default; beyond that the input is rejected as
-  [`out_of_range.408`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range408). For a DOM that bounds the memory these
-  arrays can need to about 20 _K_ bytes per byte of input (81 at the default, measured; 312 for _K_ = 16) plus about
-  33 MB for the first 1,048,576 elements; a SAX handler receives at most that many events. Every other optimized array
-  element, and every UBJSON object member (it has a key), takes at least one byte of input. Leave the macro at the
-  default for input you do not control; raise it only to read trusted files that version 3.12.0 or earlier wrote with
-  long arrays of these types, and see its page for how a value is chosen and what it costs. The limit of one array
-  does not depend on the macro.

 ## Strings

@@ -1050,21 +1050,11 @@ The size of an array or object in a [binary format](../features/binary_formats/i
 the size following `#` for [UBJSON](../features/binary_formats/ubjson.md)/[BJData](../features/binary_formats/bjdata.md),
 or the encoded length for [CBOR](../features/binary_formats/cbor.md).

-The exception is also thrown for [UBJSON](../features/binary_formats/ubjson.md) arrays of a type that is encoded by
-its marker alone (`Z`, `T` or `F`). Such an array has no payload, so its count alone decides how much memory is
-allocated, and a handful of bytes would otherwise describe billions of values. It is thrown if the declared count of one
-array exceeds 1,048,576 (`1 << 20`), and if the counts of all such arrays read so far in one input add up to more than
-1,048,576 plus 4 for every byte of the input read when the header of the last array has been read. The 4 is the
-default of the macro
-[`JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE`](../api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md), which raises it
-(for the limit of the whole input; the limit of one array stays).
-[`to_ubjson`](../api/basic_json/to_ubjson.md) writes an array of these types without the `$` type annotation (the `#`
-count and one marker per element are kept) when it is longer, or when it would bring the total of the typed arrays
-written so far above 1,048,576, so everything it produces can be read back. Only input written by another encoder, or
-by version 3.12.0 and earlier of this library, can exceed the limit: for example, 1,100 rows of 1,000 `null` values or
-210,000 rows of 25, each with a `$Z` annotation. Version 3.12.0 writes such a row in 5 bytes (6 above 255 elements, 8
-above 32,767), so rows of 20 or fewer such values are never rejected at the default; define the macro to a larger value
-to read them.
+The exception is also thrown for a [UBJSON](../features/binary_formats/ubjson.md) array of a type that is encoded by its
+marker alone (`Z`, `T` or `F`) whose declared count exceeds 1,048,576 (`1 << 20`). Such an array has no payload, so its
+count alone decides how much memory is allocated, and a handful of bytes would otherwise describe billions of values.
+[`to_ubjson`](../api/basic_json/to_ubjson.md) writes longer arrays of these types without the `$` type annotation (the `#`
+count and one marker per element are kept), so any value it produces can still be read back.

 !!! failure "Example messages"

@@ -1080,9 +1070,6 @@ to read them.
    ```
    [json.exception.out_of_range.408] syntax error while parsing UBJSON size: excessive array size
    ```
-    ```
-    [json.exception.out_of_range.408] syntax error while parsing UBJSON size: excessive number of elements without payload
-    ```

 ### json.exception.out_of_range.409

@@ -454,11 +454,11 @@ nav:
          - 'JSON_NO_SIMD': api/macros/json_no_simd.md
          - 'JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL': api/macros/json_no_thread_local.md
          - 'JSON_PRECISE_STREAM_POSITION': api/macros/json_precise_stream_position.md
+          - 'JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT': api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit.md
          - 'JSON_SKIP_LIBRARY_VERSION_CHECK': api/macros/json_skip_library_version_check.md
          - 'JSON_SKIP_UNSUPPORTED_COMPILER_CHECK': api/macros/json_skip_unsupported_compiler_check.md
          - 'JSON_STRICT_BINARY_UTF8': api/macros/json_strict_binary_utf8.md
          - 'JSON_STRICT_NUL_HANDLING': api/macros/json_strict_nul_handling.md
-          - 'JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE': api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md
          - 'JSON_USE_GLOBAL_UDLS': api/macros/json_use_global_udls.md
          - 'JSON_USE_IMPLICIT_CONVERSIONS': api/macros/json_use_implicit_conversions.md
          - 'JSON_USE_LEGACY_DISCARDED_VALUE_COMPARISON': api/macros/json_use_legacy_discarded_value_comparison.md
@@ -16,7 +16,6 @@
 #include <iterator> // back_inserter
 #include <limits> // numeric_limits
 #include <string> // char_traits, string
-#include <type_traits> // false_type, integral_constant, is_convertible, is_integral, is_same, remove_cv, remove_reference, true_type
 #include <utility> // make_pair, move
 #include <vector> // vector
 #ifdef __cpp_lib_byteswap
@@ -74,124 +73,13 @@ the input.

 This is a sanity bound rather than a security boundary, and it is far above
 any container met in practice. @ref binary_writer falls back to the
-unoptimized encoding for longer containers, and for containers that together
-with the ones before them would exceed @ref valueless_elements_base, so that a
-value serialized by this library can always be read back.
+unoptimized encoding for longer containers, so that a value serialized by
+this library can always be read back.

@sa https://github.com/nlohmann/json/issues/2793
 */
 JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t max_valueless_container_size = 1 << 20;

-/*!
-@brief number of elements of valueless UBJSON containers accepted on top of
-       @ref valueless_elements_per_byte
-
-The limit @ref max_valueless_container_size applies to each container on its
-own, so on its own it lets 9 bytes announce 1048576 values, and every further
-8 bytes (a row of an optimized array of arrays) another 1048576. The elements of all containers of a valueless type
-in one input are therefore added up, and the sum must stay below this base
-plus @ref valueless_elements_per_byte for every byte read so far. The base is
-the per-container limit, so a container that was accepted on its own before
-the sum was introduced is still accepted at the start of an input.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t valueless_elements_base = max_valueless_container_size;
-
-/// the value of JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE as a std::size_t:
-/// saturated at the largest one, not truncated, for a value that is wider
-template<typename T>
-constexpr std::size_t valueless_elements_rate(const T value) noexcept
-{
-    return static_cast<std::uintmax_t>(value) > (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)()
-           ? (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)()
-           : static_cast<std::size_t>(value);
-}
-
-/*!
-@brief number of elements of valueless UBJSON containers accepted per byte of
-       input, in addition to @ref valueless_elements_base
-
-This is the value of the macro JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE (4 by
-default), see docs/mkdocs/docs/api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md.
-
-An element of a value that has a payload costs at least one byte of input, but
-an element of a valueless type costs none, so these are the only elements whose
-number the input does not bound. They are accepted at this rate per byte read,
-which bounds the memory they take in a DOM: a value takes 16 bytes there, so
-the arrays at the limit take about 20 times this rate bytes of memory per byte
-of input (16 for the value, the rest is allocator rounding and the arrays
-themselves; measured on macOS, DOM, with containers of 9 times the rate
-elements: 25 bytes per byte at a rate of 1, 81 at 4, 312 at 16, 1226 at 64 and
-5493 at 256), plus about 33 MB for the first elements of the base (16 bytes for
-each of the 1048576 elements, and a vector that grows by reallocation, as only
-16384 elements are reserved upfront, needs the old and the new storage at once).
-
-The bound is meant for input written by other encoders and by versions before
-3.13.0, which wrote long arrays of this type optimized without a limit: input
-written by @ref binary_writer never needs more than the base, because the
-writer falls back to the unoptimized form once the arrays written so far and
-the next one add up to more than that, whatever the rate is.
-
-Range: a positive integer. A value that is not one is a compile-time error (a
-reader with a rate of 0 would accept nothing beyond the base, and a negative or
-fractional rate has no meaning). A value that does not fit into std::size_t is
-used as the largest std::size_t: the rate is so high then that the bound is
-out of reach anyway, and a project can use one spelling (for example
-`0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFu`) for 32 and 64 bit targets. The type of the value must
-be an integer type that is not wider than std::uintmax_t and not bool or a
-character type. A rate of at least 2^20 / 8 = 131072 effectively switches the
-whole-input bound off: an array of more than 32767 elements needs a count of
-type `l`, so its shortest header is `$Z#l` and four bytes (8 bytes) inside an
-optimized array of arrays (9 bytes, `[$Z#l`, at the top level), and a shorter
-header (`$Z#I` and two bytes) announces at most 32767. Every container thus has
-at most (rate * header bytes) elements, which never exceeds the limit. With a
-rate of 131071 an input that is refused exists (rows of 1048576 elements gain
-8 elements each); the per-container limit still applies.
-
-The value must be the same in every translation unit of a program (it is
-compiled into member functions of binary_reader, which are inline), and it is
-not part of the ABI tag of the namespace.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t valueless_elements_per_byte =
-    // a value that does not fit into std::size_t is the largest one (see above);
-    // the comparison is made in the widest unsigned type, so that nothing is
-    // truncated before it is made. A function template, so that the casts are
-    // not "useless" (-Wuseless-cast) where the macro already has the type
-    valueless_elements_rate((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE));
-
-/// the type of the macro's value is a character or boolean type
-template<typename T>
-struct valueless_elements_rate_is_char_or_bool : std::integral_constant < bool,
-    std::is_same<T, bool>::value || std::is_same<T, char>::value || std::is_same<T, signed char>::value
-    || std::is_same<T, unsigned char>::value || std::is_same<T, wchar_t>::value
-    || std::is_same<T, char16_t>::value || std::is_same<T, char32_t>::value >
-{};
-
-// these messages are what a user sees for a wrong value of the macro. The
-// integer test comes first because a fractional value would also fail the
-// positivity test; a value wider than std::uintmax_t would be truncated by
-// the conversion above, so it is rejected
-static_assert(std::is_integral<typename std::remove_reference<decltype((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE))>::type>::value
-              && !valueless_elements_rate_is_char_or_bool<typename std::remove_cv<typename std::remove_reference<decltype((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE))>::type>::type>::value,
-              "JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE must be an integer (not bool or a character type)");
-static_assert(sizeof(decltype((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE))) <= sizeof(std::uintmax_t),
-              "JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE must not be wider than std::uintmax_t");
-static_assert((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE) > 0,
-              "JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE must be a positive integer");
-
-/*!
-@brief the number of bytes read up to which
-       @ref valueless_elements_base plus @ref valueless_elements_per_byte times
-       that number can be computed in std::size_t
-
-For more bytes than this the limit of the valueless elements is the largest
-std::size_t, which is saturation: the sum is not computed, because it would wrap
-around, which happens for a rate that is large (the largest std::size_t as the
-rate wraps already at the first byte) or an input that is large (more than
-about a billion bytes for the default rate with a 32-bit std::size_t). It is a
-constant of the build, so no division is made while reading.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t valueless_elements_saturation_chars =
-    ((std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)() - valueless_elements_base) / (valueless_elements_per_byte == 0 ? 1 : valueless_elements_per_byte);
 ///////////////////
 // binary reader //
 ///////////////////
@@ -259,8 +147,6 @@ class binary_reader
        sax = sax_;
        container_stack.clear();
        bon8_pushback_size = 0;
-        // the position is only known to the DOM parser while this reader lives
-        const position_binding binding(bound_parser(sax, std::is_convertible<SAX*, json_sax_dom_error_state*> {}), &chars_read);
        bool result = false;

        switch (input_format)
@@ -318,61 +204,6 @@ class binary_reader
    }

  private:
-    /// the DOM parser of @a s whose reserved storage is bounded by the input
-    /// read so far; nullptr for any other SAX parser, which does not reserve,
-    /// and for one that derives from a DOM parser privately or protectedly
-    /// (or ambiguously), which the reader cannot reach
-    static json_sax_dom_error_state* bound_parser(SAX* s, std::true_type /*is a DOM parser*/) noexcept
-    {
-        return s;
-    }
-
-    static json_sax_dom_error_state* bound_parser(SAX* /*s*/, std::false_type /*is a DOM parser*/) noexcept
-    {
-        return nullptr;
-    }
-
-    /*!
-    @brief tells a DOM parser where to find the number of characters read
-           while sax_parse() runs, and puts back what it knew before when
-           sax_parse() returns or throws
-
-    The reader is a local of the caller and is gone then, so the parser must
-    not keep its position. A parser that was bound by a reader that is still
-    running (a parse inside a parse) gets that binding back; that reader is
-    still alive, as it encloses this one.
-    */
-    class position_binding
-    {
-      public:
-        position_binding(json_sax_dom_error_state* parser_, const std::size_t* position) noexcept
-            : parser(parser_), saved()
-        {
-            if (parser != nullptr)
-            {
-                saved = parser->get_reserve_state();
-                parser->set_input_position(position);
-            }
-        }
-
-        position_binding(const position_binding&) = delete;
-        position_binding(position_binding&&) = delete;
-        position_binding& operator=(const position_binding&) = delete;
-        position_binding& operator=(position_binding&&) = delete;
-
-        ~position_binding()
-        {
-            if (parser != nullptr)
-            {
-                parser->set_reserve_state(saved);
-            }
-        }
-
-      private:
-        json_sax_dom_error_state* parser;
-        json_sax_dom_error_state::reserve_state saved;
-    };
-
    ////////////////////////
    // nested containers  //
    ////////////////////////
@@ -3869,38 +3700,6 @@ class binary_reader
        return emit_unsigned(number);
    }

-    /*!
-    @brief add the elements of a container of a valueless type to the total of
-           the input and check the total against the input read so far
-
-    A container of type 'Z', 'T' or 'F' has no payload, so its elements are the
-    only ones for which the input does not bound the count. The check is made
-    once per container, not per element.
-
-    @param[in] count  number of elements the container declares; at most
-                      @ref max_valueless_container_size
-    @return false if the total is more than @ref valueless_elements_base plus
-            @ref valueless_elements_per_byte for every byte read so far; the
-            total is not changed then
-    */
-    bool charge_valueless_elements(const std::size_t count) noexcept
-    {
-        // limit = base + rate * chars_read, saturating at the largest size_t
-        // instead of wrapping around, which would make a huge rate or input
-        // reject everything. valueless_elements never exceeds the limit of an
-        // earlier call, and the limit does not decrease, so the difference
-        // below cannot underflow.
-        const std::size_t limit = chars_read <= valueless_elements_saturation_chars
-                                  ? valueless_elements_base + (valueless_elements_per_byte * chars_read)
-                                  : (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)();
-        if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(count > limit - valueless_elements))
-        {
-            return false;
-        }
-        valueless_elements += count;
-        return true;
-    }
-
    /*!
    @return whether array creation completed
    */
@@ -3986,27 +3785,24 @@ class binary_reader
            // declared count alone decides how much is allocated; the check is
            // made before the start event so that no container is opened that
            // is then abandoned. See @ref max_valueless_container_size.
-            if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(size_and_type.second == 'Z' || size_and_type.second == 'T' || size_and_type.second == 'F'))
+            if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY((size_and_type.second == 'Z' || size_and_type.second == 'T' || size_and_type.second == 'F')
+                                     && size_and_type.first > max_valueless_container_size))
            {
-                if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(size_and_type.first > max_valueless_container_size))
-                {
-                    return out_of_range_error(exception_id::container_too_large, "excessive array size", "size");
-                }
-                if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(!charge_valueless_elements(size_and_type.first)))
-                {
-                    return out_of_range_error(exception_id::container_too_large, "excessive number of elements without payload", "size");
-                }
+                return out_of_range_error(exception_id::container_too_large, "excessive array size", "size");
            }

-            // a no-op is not a value, so an array of them is empty whatever
-            // count it declares: the SAX parser is told so, instead of being
-            // made to reserve storage for a count that no input backs
-            const std::size_t announced = size_and_type.second == 'N' ? 0 : size_and_type.first;
-            if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(!enter_array(announced, size_and_type.second)))
+            if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(!enter_array(size_and_type.first, size_and_type.second)))
            {
                return false;
            }

+            if (size_and_type.second == 'N')
+            {
+                // a no-op is not a value, so a container of them holds none;
+                // the declared size has already been passed to the SAX parser
+                container_stack.back().remaining = 0;
+            }
+
            return size_and_type.second == 0
                   || parse_ubjson_typed_run(container_stack.back().remaining, size_and_type.second, std::integral_constant<bool, bulk_scan> {});
        }
@@ -5318,10 +5114,6 @@ class binary_reader
    /// the number of characters read
    std::size_t chars_read = 0;

-    /// UBJSON: the sum of the element counts of the containers of a valueless
-    /// type read so far; see @ref charge_valueless_elements
-    std::size_t valueless_elements = 0;
-
    /// whether we can assume little endianness
    const bool is_little_endian = little_endianness();

@@ -159,40 +159,6 @@ constexpr std::size_t unknown_size()
    return (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)();
 }

-/// the largest number of elements the DOM parsers reserve for one array upfront
-constexpr std::size_t reserve_cap()
-{
-    return 16384;
-}
-
-/*!
-@brief number of array elements a DOM parser may reserve upfront on top of
-       @ref reserved_elements_per_byte
-
-An array that announces its size is given storage for that many elements when
-it opens (at most @ref reserve_cap of them), before any input backs the
-announcement, and the arrays that are open at the same time keep their storage
-until the input is complete: 100000 nested headers of three bytes each that
-announce 16384 elements would otherwise need 1.7 GB. The elements reserved for
-all arrays of an input are therefore added up, and the sum must stay below
-this base plus @ref reserved_elements_per_byte for every byte read so far; an
-array that would go beyond reserves what is left, and grows as its elements
-arrive. The base is four arrays of the maximum size, so the first nested
-arrays of an input are not affected.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t reserved_elements_base = 4 * reserve_cap();
-
-/*!
-@brief number of array elements a DOM parser may reserve upfront per byte of
-       input, in addition to @ref reserved_elements_base
-
-An element of an array takes at least one byte of input, so an array that
-completes has used what was reserved for it. At a rate of 2 elements per
-byte, an array that announces more than the input provides keeps at most
-32 bytes of memory per byte of input, plus the base, until the parse fails.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t reserved_elements_per_byte = 2;
-
 /*!
@brief reserve capacity for @a len elements in array @a arr

@@ -208,7 +174,8 @@ template<typename ArrayType>
 auto reserve_array(ArrayType& arr, std::size_t len, priority_tag<1> /*unused*/)
 -> decltype(arr.reserve(len), void())
 {
-    arr.reserve((std::min)(len, reserve_cap()));
+    constexpr std::size_t reserve_cap = 16384;
+    arr.reserve((std::min)(len, reserve_cap));
 }

 template<typename ArrayType>
@@ -375,13 +342,6 @@ struct diagnostic_positions
 Holds whether a parse error occurred and whether errors are thrown, and
 implements the parse_error() and is_errored() members of the SAX interface for
 json_sax_dom_parser and json_sax_dom_callback_parser.
-
-It also bounds what the parsers reserve for arrays that announce their size
-(reserve_count()): the announced size is not backed by input yet when the
-array opens, and the arrays that are open at the same time each keep what was
-reserved for them, so the binary_reader tells the parser where to find the
-number of characters it has read (set_input_position()), which the bound
-is derived from.
 */
 class json_sax_dom_error_state
 {
@@ -415,103 +375,7 @@ class json_sax_dom_error_state
        return errored;
    }

-    /// bind the number of characters the input has provided so far; see
-    /// @ref reserve_count
-    /// (nullptr: not known, which bounds only the size of each array)
-    void set_input_position(const std::size_t* position) noexcept
-    {
-        input_position = position;
-        credit_position = 0;
-        reserve_credit = position != nullptr ? reserved_elements_base : (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)();
-    }
-
-    /// what set_input_position() changes, so that a binding can be undone
-    struct reserve_state
-    {
-        const std::size_t* position;
-        std::size_t position_at_refill;
-        std::size_t credit;
-    };
-
-    reserve_state get_reserve_state() const noexcept
-    {
-        return {input_position, credit_position, reserve_credit};
-    }
-
-    void set_reserve_state(const reserve_state& state) noexcept
-    {
-        input_position = state.position;
-        credit_position = state.position_at_refill;
-        reserve_credit = state.credit;
-    }
-
-  protected:
-    /*!
-    @brief the number of elements to reserve for an array that announces @a len
-
-    The announced number is not backed by input when the array opens, and the
-    arrays that are open at the same time each keep what was reserved for
-    them, so what is reserved for all arrays together is bounded by the
-    input read so far: @ref reserved_elements_base plus
-    @ref reserved_elements_per_byte for every character. An array that
-    announces more than what is left of that is given what is left, and
-    grows as its elements arrive. Without the position of the input (the
-    parser is not driven by a binary_reader that is running) nothing is
-    bounded but the cap of reserve_array().
-
-    The common case, an array that announces no more than the credit left,
-    costs a comparison and a subtraction. It is charged what it announces, which
-    for an array of more than reserve_cap() elements is more than reserve_array()
-    reserves for it, which its own elements refill as they are read.
-    */
-    std::size_t reserve_count(const std::size_t len) noexcept
-    {
-        if (JSON_HEDLEY_LIKELY(len <= reserve_credit))
-        {
-            reserve_credit -= len;
-            return len;
-        }
-        return reserve_count_slowly(len);
-    }
-
  private:
-    JSON_HEDLEY_NEVER_INLINE
-    std::size_t reserve_count_slowly(const std::size_t len) noexcept
-    {
-        constexpr std::size_t max_size = (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)();
-        if (input_position == nullptr)
-        {
-            reserve_credit = max_size;
-            return len;
-        }
-
-        // refill the credit with 'reserved_elements_per_byte' for every
-        // character read since the last refill; it saturates instead of
-        // overflowing when size_t is 32 bits wide and a very large input has
-        // been read (the position goes back by up to two in BON8, which has
-        // no sizes)
-        const std::size_t position = *input_position;
-        if (position > credit_position)
-        {
-            const std::size_t bytes = position - credit_position;
-            reserve_credit = bytes <= (max_size - reserve_credit) / reserved_elements_per_byte
-                             ? reserve_credit + (reserved_elements_per_byte * bytes)
-                             : max_size;
-            credit_position = position;
-        }
-
-        std::size_t count = (std::min)(len, reserve_cap());
-        count = (std::min)(count, reserve_credit);
-        reserve_credit -= count;
-        return count;
-    }
-
-    /// the number of characters the input has provided so far, if known
-    const std::size_t* input_position = nullptr;
-    /// the number of characters the input had provided when the credit was refilled
-    std::size_t credit_position = 0;
-    /// the number of elements that may still be reserved
-    std::size_t reserve_credit = reserved_elements_base;
    /// whether a syntax error occurred
    bool errored = false;
    /// whether to throw exceptions in case of errors
@@ -1346,7 +1210,7 @@ class json_sax_dom_parser : public json_sax_dom_error_state

        if (len != detail::unknown_size())
        {
-            reserve_array(*ref->m_data.m_value.array, reserve_count(len), priority_tag<1> {});
+            reserve_array(*ref->m_data.m_value.array, len, priority_tag<1> {});
        }
    }

@@ -1694,7 +1558,7 @@ class json_sax_dom_binary_parser : public json_sax_dom_error_state

        if (len != detail::unknown_size())
        {
-            reserve_array(*ref_stack.back()->m_data.m_value.array, reserve_count(len), priority_tag<1> {});
+            reserve_array(*ref_stack.back()->m_data.m_value.array, len, priority_tag<1> {});
        }

        return true;
@@ -1986,7 +1850,7 @@ class json_sax_dom_callback_parser : public json_sax_dom_error_state

            if (len != detail::unknown_size())
            {
-                reserve_array(*ref_stack.back()->m_data.m_value.array, reserve_count(len), priority_tag<1> {});
+                reserve_array(*ref_stack.back()->m_data.m_value.array, len, priority_tag<1> {});
            }
        }

@@ -224,6 +224,12 @@
    #define JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL 1
 #endif

+// JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT (the number of nesting levels the walks over a
+// value recurse into before they continue with an explicit stack; 128 by
+// default, 0 to 254 allowed) is defined and checked where it is used, in
+// detail/recursion_depth_limit.hpp. Like JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL it is neither part
+// of the ABI tag nor undefined at the end of json.hpp.
+
 // allow disabling exceptions
 #if (defined(__cpp_exceptions) || defined(__EXCEPTIONS) || defined(_CPPUNWIND)) && !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
    #define JSON_THROW(exception) throw exception
@@ -917,14 +923,3 @@
 #ifndef JSON_DISABLE_TUPLE_REFERENCE_CONVERSION
    #define JSON_DISABLE_TUPLE_REFERENCE_CONVERSION 0
 #endif
-
-// JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE: how many elements of optimized
-// UBJSON containers of type Z, T or F (which have no payload) a reader accepts
-// per byte of input, on top of a fixed base. The value is checked and converted
-// in binary_reader.hpp; the macro is documented in
-// docs/mkdocs/docs/api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md.
-// It is not part of the ABI tag: it must have the same value in every
-// translation unit of a program.
-#ifndef JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE
-    #define JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE 4
-#endif
@@ -60,7 +60,6 @@
    #undef JSON_USE_OBJECTS_FOR_ENUM_KEYED_MAPS
    #undef JSON_DISABLE_STREAM_BULK_SCAN
    #undef JSON_DISABLE_UNLOCKED_FILE_IO
-    #undef JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE
 #endif

 #include <nlohmann/thirdparty/hedley/hedley_undef.hpp>
@@ -1204,29 +1204,20 @@ class binary_writer

            // an optimized array of a valueless type carries no payload, so a
            // reader has nothing but the declared count to bound the allocation
-            // by. It refuses one array of more than max_valueless_container_size
-            // elements, and all such arrays of one input together when they add
-            // up to more than valueless_elements_base plus
-            // JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE per byte read. Write the
-            // unoptimized form, at one byte per element, for an array that
-            // would exceed the base with the arrays written so far, so that the
-            // result can be read back: the limit of a reader is never below the
-            // base, whatever the macro is set to, so the writer does not use
-            // it (and a reader with a larger rate reads this output as well).
+            // by and refuses an excessive one. Write the unoptimized form for
+            // those, at one byte per element, so the result can be read back.
            // Objects are not affected: every element is preceded by its key.
-            if (same_prefix && !(use_bjdata && is_bjdata_excluded_type_marker(first_prefix)))
+            const bool valueless_type = (first_prefix == 'Z' || first_prefix == 'T' || first_prefix == 'F');
+            const bool excessive_valueless = IsArray
+                                             && valueless_type
+                                             && size > detail::max_valueless_container_size;
+
+            if (same_prefix && !excessive_valueless
+                    && !(use_bjdata && is_bjdata_excluded_type_marker(first_prefix)))
            {
-                const bool valueless_type = IsArray && (first_prefix == 'Z' || first_prefix == 'T' || first_prefix == 'F');
-                if (!valueless_type || size <= detail::valueless_elements_base - valueless_elements_written)
-                {
-                    prefix_required = false;
-                    oa.write_character(to_char_type('$'));
-                    oa.write_character(first_prefix);
-                    if (valueless_type)
-                    {
-                        valueless_elements_written += size;
-                    }
-                }
+                prefix_required = false;
+                oa.write_character(to_char_type('$'));
+                oa.write_character(first_prefix);
            }
        }

@@ -5450,10 +5441,6 @@ class binary_writer
    /// how to treat a string value or object key that is not valid UTF-8
    /// (CBOR, MessagePack, UBJSON, BJData, and BSON; not BON8)
    const error_handler_t error_handler = binary_writer_default_error_handler();
-
-    /// UBJSON: the number of elements written so far in optimized arrays of a
-    /// valueless type, which a reader adds up and bounds
-    std::size_t valueless_elements_written = 0;
 };

 }  // namespace detail
@@ -9,9 +9,22 @@
 #pragma once

 #include <cstddef> // size_t
+#include <type_traits> // is_integral, is_same

 #include <nlohmann/detail/abi_macros.hpp>

+// JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT: the number of nesting levels the operations that
+// walk a value recurse into on the call stack before they continue with an
+// explicit stack (see detail::recursion_depth_limit() below).
+//
+// May be defined by the user before the first include of the library; it has
+// to be the same in every translation unit of a program (it is not part of the
+// ABI tag, see https://json.nlohmann.me/api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit/).
+// Allowed: an integer constant expression from 0 to 254. The default is 128.
+#ifndef JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT
+    #define JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT 128
+#endif
+
 NLOHMANN_JSON_NAMESPACE_BEGIN
 namespace detail
 {
@@ -20,21 +33,59 @@ namespace detail
@brief the number of nesting levels an operation recurses into

 Operations that walk a value (copying, comparing, serializing, hashing, merging,
-...) recurse once
-per nesting level, which is fastest, but a value nested deeply enough would
-exhaust the call stack. So they recurse only this many levels deep and finish
-whatever lies below with an explicit stack. All of them share this limit.
+diffing, converting, destroying, and writing the binary formats CBOR,
+MessagePack, UBJSON, BJData, and BON8) recurse once per nesting level, which is
+fastest, but a value nested deeply enough would exhaust the call stack. So they
+recurse only this many levels deep and finish whatever lies below with an
+explicit stack that lives on the heap. All of them share this limit and none has
+a constant of its own. It is the value of the macro JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT,
+128 by default. (Parsing, the binary readers, flatten(), unflatten(), and
+to_bson() always use an explicit stack and do not read it, and the lockstep
+comparison of json_view documents has a fixed bound of its own, 48 levels.)

-Most of them pass the depth down as an argument. The copy constructor and the
-comparison operators cannot, as their signatures are fixed, so they count it
-in basic_json::nesting_depth() instead, a byte per thread; the limit must
-therefore stay below 255.
+Most of the operations pass the depth down as an argument. The copy constructor
+and the comparison operators cannot, as their signatures are fixed, so they
+count it in basic_json::nesting_depth() instead, a byte per thread. Only the
+levels that are descended into are counted, so the count never exceeds the limit.
+The limit must fit in the byte with some headroom, so that the count cannot wrap
+around: it must be below 255, and 254 is the largest value allowed. (More levels
+would hardly be useful: 254 levels need up to 576 KiB of stack in an unoptimized
+build already, twice the stack of the default.)

+The smallest value is 0: every operation then uses its explicit stack from the
+first level on and no operation recurses over the nesting of a value at all.
+That is slower, but needs a constant amount of call stack. It works because
+every use of the limit compares a depth with it (`depth >= limit`, or `<` for
+the opposite), which holds for 0 as for any other value; nothing computes
+`limit - 1` or `limit + 1`, so nothing wraps around. Each operation's explicit
+stack handles any nesting level, including the first, so none of them relies on
+having recursed first.
+
+The call stack that an operation needs is roughly a few KiB plus a cost per level
+times the limit. At the default of 128 levels, an unoptimized build needs up to
+about 290 KiB (`dump()` with Clang at -O0: about 2.3 KiB per level) and an
+optimized build up to about 48 KiB; with 254 levels it is up to 576 KiB and
+112 KiB, and with 0 it is 16 KiB or less. Lower the limit for threads with small
+stacks (RTOS tasks, fibers, musl threads), raise it to trade stack for speed on
+deeply nested values. All of this, with the measurements, is in the
+documentation of the macro.
+
+@sa https://json.nlohmann.me/api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit/
@sa https://github.com/nlohmann/json/issues/5387
 */
 constexpr std::size_t recursion_depth_limit() noexcept
 {
-    return 128;
+    // an integer: not a floating-point number, whose range check would pass for 1.5 or 254.0
+    // (bool is an integer type, too, but 1 and 0 spelled true and false are no way to say a limit)
+    static_assert(std::is_integral<decltype(JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT)>::value
+                  && !std::is_same<decltype(JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT), bool>::value,
+                  "JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT must be an integer constant");
+    static_assert(JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT >= 0 && JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT <= 254,
+                  "JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT must be between 0 and 254: the nesting depth is counted in a byte per thread "
+                  "and may exceed the limit by one (see https://json.nlohmann.me/api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit/)");
+    // (a value out of range has been reported by now; the remainder keeps it
+    // below 255 for any value, so that basic_json does not report it again)
+    return static_cast<std::size_t>(JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT) % 255;
 }

 }  // namespace detail
@@ -1256,8 +1256,12 @@ public:
    }

 #ifndef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
-    // nesting_depth() is a byte and may exceed the limit by one level
-    static_assert(detail::recursion_depth_limit() < 255, "the nesting depth count must fit in a byte");
+    // nesting_depth() is a byte that never exceeds the limit (JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT),
+    // which is at most 254: the largest value stays one below the byte's maximum, so
+    // that the count cannot wrap around to 0 and let a descent go on without a bound.
+    // (recursion_depth_limit() checks the macro itself, with a message that
+    // names it; this is the check that cannot be edited away unnoticed.)
+    static_assert(detail::recursion_depth_limit() < 255, "the nesting depth count must fit in a byte: JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT must not exceed 254");

    /*!
    @brief how many levels the operation going on in this thread has descended into
@@ -1268,8 +1272,15 @@ public:
    user code nests them anyway, sharing the count only ends a descent sooner
    than it had to, which costs a little speed and is never wrong.

-    A byte is enough: the count never exceeds the limit by more than the single
-    level that notices the limit has been reached.
+    A byte is enough: only the levels that are descended into are counted
+    (@ref nesting_depth_guard), so the count never exceeds the limit, and the
+    limit is at most 254.
+
+    The count is per thread and not per value or per library configuration: all
+    translation units of a program share it, even if they were compiled with
+    different values of JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT (which is not supported, see
+    the documentation of the macro); each of them then compares the shared count
+    with its own limit.
    */
    static std::uint8_t& nesting_depth() noexcept
    {
@@ -1327,14 +1338,25 @@ public:
 #endif
        {
 #ifndef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
-            ++nesting_depth();
+            // Only a level that is entered is counted, so that the count never
+            // exceeds the limit. A level that is not entered is finished without
+            // descending, and whatever runs while it is (a copy made by a custom
+            // base class, say) sees the same count as the level itself did and
+            // is not entered either.
+            if (m_okay)
+            {
+                ++nesting_depth();
+            }
 #endif
        }

        ~nesting_depth_guard()
        {
 #ifndef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
-            --nesting_depth();
+            if (m_okay)
+            {
+                --nesting_depth();
+            }
 #endif
        }

@@ -5246,7 +5268,10 @@ public:
    */
    void update_members(const iterator& first, const iterator& last, const bool merge_objects, const std::size_t depth)
    {
-        if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(depth >= detail::recursion_depth_limit()))
+        // without merge_objects the loop below never descends, so there is no
+        // call stack to save (and the explicit stack always merges); the
+        // distinction matters for a limit of 0, which reaches this at depth 0
+        if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(merge_objects && depth >= detail::recursion_depth_limit()))
        {
            update_members_iteratively(first, last);
            return;
@@ -2597,6 +2597,12 @@ JSON_HEDLEY_DIAGNOSTIC_POP
    #define JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL 1
 #endif

+// JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT (the number of nesting levels the walks over a
+// value recurse into before they continue with an explicit stack; 128 by
+// default, 0 to 254 allowed) is defined and checked where it is used, in
+// detail/recursion_depth_limit.hpp. Like JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL it is neither part
+// of the ABI tag nor undefined at the end of json.hpp.
+
 // allow disabling exceptions
 #if (defined(__cpp_exceptions) || defined(__EXCEPTIONS) || defined(_CPPUNWIND)) && !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
    #define JSON_THROW(exception) throw exception
@@ -3291,17 +3297,6 @@ JSON_HEDLEY_DIAGNOSTIC_POP
    #define JSON_DISABLE_TUPLE_REFERENCE_CONVERSION 0
 #endif

-// JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE: how many elements of optimized
-// UBJSON containers of type Z, T or F (which have no payload) a reader accepts
-// per byte of input, on top of a fixed base. The value is checked and converted
-// in binary_reader.hpp; the macro is documented in
-// docs/mkdocs/docs/api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md.
-// It is not part of the ABI tag: it must have the same value in every
-// translation unit of a program.
-#ifndef JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE
-    #define JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE 4
-#endif
-
 #if JSON_HAS_THREE_WAY_COMPARISON
    #include <compare> // partial_ordering
 #endif
@@ -8611,10 +8606,23 @@ NLOHMANN_JSON_NAMESPACE_END


 #include <cstddef> // size_t
+#include <type_traits> // is_integral, is_same

 // #include <nlohmann/detail/abi_macros.hpp>


+// JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT: the number of nesting levels the operations that
+// walk a value recurse into on the call stack before they continue with an
+// explicit stack (see detail::recursion_depth_limit() below).
+//
+// May be defined by the user before the first include of the library; it has
+// to be the same in every translation unit of a program (it is not part of the
+// ABI tag, see https://json.nlohmann.me/api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit/).
+// Allowed: an integer constant expression from 0 to 254. The default is 128.
+#ifndef JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT
+    #define JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT 128
+#endif
+
 NLOHMANN_JSON_NAMESPACE_BEGIN
 namespace detail
 {
@@ -8623,21 +8631,59 @@ namespace detail
@brief the number of nesting levels an operation recurses into

 Operations that walk a value (copying, comparing, serializing, hashing, merging,
-...) recurse once
-per nesting level, which is fastest, but a value nested deeply enough would
-exhaust the call stack. So they recurse only this many levels deep and finish
-whatever lies below with an explicit stack. All of them share this limit.
+diffing, converting, destroying, and writing the binary formats CBOR,
+MessagePack, UBJSON, BJData, and BON8) recurse once per nesting level, which is
+fastest, but a value nested deeply enough would exhaust the call stack. So they
+recurse only this many levels deep and finish whatever lies below with an
+explicit stack that lives on the heap. All of them share this limit and none has
+a constant of its own. It is the value of the macro JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT,
+128 by default. (Parsing, the binary readers, flatten(), unflatten(), and
+to_bson() always use an explicit stack and do not read it, and the lockstep
+comparison of json_view documents has a fixed bound of its own, 48 levels.)

-Most of them pass the depth down as an argument. The copy constructor and the
-comparison operators cannot, as their signatures are fixed, so they count it
-in basic_json::nesting_depth() instead, a byte per thread; the limit must
-therefore stay below 255.
+Most of the operations pass the depth down as an argument. The copy constructor
+and the comparison operators cannot, as their signatures are fixed, so they
+count it in basic_json::nesting_depth() instead, a byte per thread. Only the
+levels that are descended into are counted, so the count never exceeds the limit.
+The limit must fit in the byte with some headroom, so that the count cannot wrap
+around: it must be below 255, and 254 is the largest value allowed. (More levels
+would hardly be useful: 254 levels need up to 576 KiB of stack in an unoptimized
+build already, twice the stack of the default.)

+The smallest value is 0: every operation then uses its explicit stack from the
+first level on and no operation recurses over the nesting of a value at all.
+That is slower, but needs a constant amount of call stack. It works because
+every use of the limit compares a depth with it (`depth >= limit`, or `<` for
+the opposite), which holds for 0 as for any other value; nothing computes
+`limit - 1` or `limit + 1`, so nothing wraps around. Each operation's explicit
+stack handles any nesting level, including the first, so none of them relies on
+having recursed first.
+
+The call stack that an operation needs is roughly a few KiB plus a cost per level
+times the limit. At the default of 128 levels, an unoptimized build needs up to
+about 290 KiB (`dump()` with Clang at -O0: about 2.3 KiB per level) and an
+optimized build up to about 48 KiB; with 254 levels it is up to 576 KiB and
+112 KiB, and with 0 it is 16 KiB or less. Lower the limit for threads with small
+stacks (RTOS tasks, fibers, musl threads), raise it to trade stack for speed on
+deeply nested values. All of this, with the measurements, is in the
+documentation of the macro.
+
+@sa https://json.nlohmann.me/api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit/
@sa https://github.com/nlohmann/json/issues/5387
 */
 constexpr std::size_t recursion_depth_limit() noexcept
 {
-    return 128;
+    // an integer: not a floating-point number, whose range check would pass for 1.5 or 254.0
+    // (bool is an integer type, too, but 1 and 0 spelled true and false are no way to say a limit)
+    static_assert(std::is_integral<decltype(JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT)>::value
+                  && !std::is_same<decltype(JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT), bool>::value,
+                  "JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT must be an integer constant");
+    static_assert(JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT >= 0 && JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT <= 254,
+                  "JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT must be between 0 and 254: the nesting depth is counted in a byte per thread "
+                  "and may exceed the limit by one (see https://json.nlohmann.me/api/macros/json_recursion_depth_limit/)");
+    // (a value out of range has been reported by now; the remainder keeps it
+    // below 255 for any value, so that basic_json does not report it again)
+    return static_cast<std::size_t>(JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT) % 255;
 }

 }  // namespace detail
@@ -8877,7 +8923,6 @@ NLOHMANN_JSON_NAMESPACE_END
 #include <iterator> // back_inserter
 #include <limits> // numeric_limits
 #include <string> // char_traits, string
-#include <type_traits> // false_type, integral_constant, is_convertible, is_integral, is_same, remove_cv, remove_reference, true_type
 #include <utility> // make_pair, move
 #include <vector> // vector
 #ifdef __cpp_lib_byteswap
@@ -16068,40 +16113,6 @@ constexpr std::size_t unknown_size()
    return (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)();
 }

-/// the largest number of elements the DOM parsers reserve for one array upfront
-constexpr std::size_t reserve_cap()
-{
-    return 16384;
-}
-
-/*!
-@brief number of array elements a DOM parser may reserve upfront on top of
-       @ref reserved_elements_per_byte
-
-An array that announces its size is given storage for that many elements when
-it opens (at most @ref reserve_cap of them), before any input backs the
-announcement, and the arrays that are open at the same time keep their storage
-until the input is complete: 100000 nested headers of three bytes each that
-announce 16384 elements would otherwise need 1.7 GB. The elements reserved for
-all arrays of an input are therefore added up, and the sum must stay below
-this base plus @ref reserved_elements_per_byte for every byte read so far; an
-array that would go beyond reserves what is left, and grows as its elements
-arrive. The base is four arrays of the maximum size, so the first nested
-arrays of an input are not affected.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t reserved_elements_base = 4 * reserve_cap();
-
-/*!
-@brief number of array elements a DOM parser may reserve upfront per byte of
-       input, in addition to @ref reserved_elements_base
-
-An element of an array takes at least one byte of input, so an array that
-completes has used what was reserved for it. At a rate of 2 elements per
-byte, an array that announces more than the input provides keeps at most
-32 bytes of memory per byte of input, plus the base, until the parse fails.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t reserved_elements_per_byte = 2;
-
 /*!
@brief reserve capacity for @a len elements in array @a arr

@@ -16117,7 +16128,8 @@ template<typename ArrayType>
 auto reserve_array(ArrayType& arr, std::size_t len, priority_tag<1> /*unused*/)
 -> decltype(arr.reserve(len), void())
 {
-    arr.reserve((std::min)(len, reserve_cap()));
+    constexpr std::size_t reserve_cap = 16384;
+    arr.reserve((std::min)(len, reserve_cap));
 }

 template<typename ArrayType>
@@ -16284,13 +16296,6 @@ struct diagnostic_positions
 Holds whether a parse error occurred and whether errors are thrown, and
 implements the parse_error() and is_errored() members of the SAX interface for
 json_sax_dom_parser and json_sax_dom_callback_parser.
-
-It also bounds what the parsers reserve for arrays that announce their size
-(reserve_count()): the announced size is not backed by input yet when the
-array opens, and the arrays that are open at the same time each keep what was
-reserved for them, so the binary_reader tells the parser where to find the
-number of characters it has read (set_input_position()), which the bound
-is derived from.
 */
 class json_sax_dom_error_state
 {
@@ -16324,103 +16329,7 @@ class json_sax_dom_error_state
        return errored;
    }

-    /// bind the number of characters the input has provided so far; see
-    /// @ref reserve_count
-    /// (nullptr: not known, which bounds only the size of each array)
-    void set_input_position(const std::size_t* position) noexcept
-    {
-        input_position = position;
-        credit_position = 0;
-        reserve_credit = position != nullptr ? reserved_elements_base : (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)();
-    }
-
-    /// what set_input_position() changes, so that a binding can be undone
-    struct reserve_state
-    {
-        const std::size_t* position;
-        std::size_t position_at_refill;
-        std::size_t credit;
-    };
-
-    reserve_state get_reserve_state() const noexcept
-    {
-        return {input_position, credit_position, reserve_credit};
-    }
-
-    void set_reserve_state(const reserve_state& state) noexcept
-    {
-        input_position = state.position;
-        credit_position = state.position_at_refill;
-        reserve_credit = state.credit;
-    }
-
-  protected:
-    /*!
-    @brief the number of elements to reserve for an array that announces @a len
-
-    The announced number is not backed by input when the array opens, and the
-    arrays that are open at the same time each keep what was reserved for
-    them, so what is reserved for all arrays together is bounded by the
-    input read so far: @ref reserved_elements_base plus
-    @ref reserved_elements_per_byte for every character. An array that
-    announces more than what is left of that is given what is left, and
-    grows as its elements arrive. Without the position of the input (the
-    parser is not driven by a binary_reader that is running) nothing is
-    bounded but the cap of reserve_array().
-
-    The common case, an array that announces no more than the credit left,
-    costs a comparison and a subtraction. It is charged what it announces, which
-    for an array of more than reserve_cap() elements is more than reserve_array()
-    reserves for it, which its own elements refill as they are read.
-    */
-    std::size_t reserve_count(const std::size_t len) noexcept
-    {
-        if (JSON_HEDLEY_LIKELY(len <= reserve_credit))
-        {
-            reserve_credit -= len;
-            return len;
-        }
-        return reserve_count_slowly(len);
-    }
-
  private:
-    JSON_HEDLEY_NEVER_INLINE
-    std::size_t reserve_count_slowly(const std::size_t len) noexcept
-    {
-        constexpr std::size_t max_size = (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)();
-        if (input_position == nullptr)
-        {
-            reserve_credit = max_size;
-            return len;
-        }
-
-        // refill the credit with 'reserved_elements_per_byte' for every
-        // character read since the last refill; it saturates instead of
-        // overflowing when size_t is 32 bits wide and a very large input has
-        // been read (the position goes back by up to two in BON8, which has
-        // no sizes)
-        const std::size_t position = *input_position;
-        if (position > credit_position)
-        {
-            const std::size_t bytes = position - credit_position;
-            reserve_credit = bytes <= (max_size - reserve_credit) / reserved_elements_per_byte
-                             ? reserve_credit + (reserved_elements_per_byte * bytes)
-                             : max_size;
-            credit_position = position;
-        }
-
-        std::size_t count = (std::min)(len, reserve_cap());
-        count = (std::min)(count, reserve_credit);
-        reserve_credit -= count;
-        return count;
-    }
-
-    /// the number of characters the input has provided so far, if known
-    const std::size_t* input_position = nullptr;
-    /// the number of characters the input had provided when the credit was refilled
-    std::size_t credit_position = 0;
-    /// the number of elements that may still be reserved
-    std::size_t reserve_credit = reserved_elements_base;
    /// whether a syntax error occurred
    bool errored = false;
    /// whether to throw exceptions in case of errors
@@ -17255,7 +17164,7 @@ class json_sax_dom_parser : public json_sax_dom_error_state

        if (len != detail::unknown_size())
        {
-            reserve_array(*ref->m_data.m_value.array, reserve_count(len), priority_tag<1> {});
+            reserve_array(*ref->m_data.m_value.array, len, priority_tag<1> {});
        }
    }

@@ -17603,7 +17512,7 @@ class json_sax_dom_binary_parser : public json_sax_dom_error_state

        if (len != detail::unknown_size())
        {
-            reserve_array(*ref_stack.back()->m_data.m_value.array, reserve_count(len), priority_tag<1> {});
+            reserve_array(*ref_stack.back()->m_data.m_value.array, len, priority_tag<1> {});
        }

        return true;
@@ -17895,7 +17804,7 @@ class json_sax_dom_callback_parser : public json_sax_dom_error_state

            if (len != detail::unknown_size())
            {
-                reserve_array(*ref_stack.back()->m_data.m_value.array, reserve_count(len), priority_tag<1> {});
+                reserve_array(*ref_stack.back()->m_data.m_value.array, len, priority_tag<1> {});
            }
        }

@@ -18500,124 +18409,13 @@ the input.

 This is a sanity bound rather than a security boundary, and it is far above
 any container met in practice. @ref binary_writer falls back to the
-unoptimized encoding for longer containers, and for containers that together
-with the ones before them would exceed @ref valueless_elements_base, so that a
-value serialized by this library can always be read back.
+unoptimized encoding for longer containers, so that a value serialized by
+this library can always be read back.

@sa https://github.com/nlohmann/json/issues/2793
 */
 JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t max_valueless_container_size = 1 << 20;

-/*!
-@brief number of elements of valueless UBJSON containers accepted on top of
-       @ref valueless_elements_per_byte
-
-The limit @ref max_valueless_container_size applies to each container on its
-own, so on its own it lets 9 bytes announce 1048576 values, and every further
-8 bytes (a row of an optimized array of arrays) another 1048576. The elements of all containers of a valueless type
-in one input are therefore added up, and the sum must stay below this base
-plus @ref valueless_elements_per_byte for every byte read so far. The base is
-the per-container limit, so a container that was accepted on its own before
-the sum was introduced is still accepted at the start of an input.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t valueless_elements_base = max_valueless_container_size;
-
-/// the value of JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE as a std::size_t:
-/// saturated at the largest one, not truncated, for a value that is wider
-template<typename T>
-constexpr std::size_t valueless_elements_rate(const T value) noexcept
-{
-    return static_cast<std::uintmax_t>(value) > (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)()
-           ? (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)()
-           : static_cast<std::size_t>(value);
-}
-
-/*!
-@brief number of elements of valueless UBJSON containers accepted per byte of
-       input, in addition to @ref valueless_elements_base
-
-This is the value of the macro JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE (4 by
-default), see docs/mkdocs/docs/api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md.
-
-An element of a value that has a payload costs at least one byte of input, but
-an element of a valueless type costs none, so these are the only elements whose
-number the input does not bound. They are accepted at this rate per byte read,
-which bounds the memory they take in a DOM: a value takes 16 bytes there, so
-the arrays at the limit take about 20 times this rate bytes of memory per byte
-of input (16 for the value, the rest is allocator rounding and the arrays
-themselves; measured on macOS, DOM, with containers of 9 times the rate
-elements: 25 bytes per byte at a rate of 1, 81 at 4, 312 at 16, 1226 at 64 and
-5493 at 256), plus about 33 MB for the first elements of the base (16 bytes for
-each of the 1048576 elements, and a vector that grows by reallocation, as only
-16384 elements are reserved upfront, needs the old and the new storage at once).
-
-The bound is meant for input written by other encoders and by versions before
-3.13.0, which wrote long arrays of this type optimized without a limit: input
-written by @ref binary_writer never needs more than the base, because the
-writer falls back to the unoptimized form once the arrays written so far and
-the next one add up to more than that, whatever the rate is.
-
-Range: a positive integer. A value that is not one is a compile-time error (a
-reader with a rate of 0 would accept nothing beyond the base, and a negative or
-fractional rate has no meaning). A value that does not fit into std::size_t is
-used as the largest std::size_t: the rate is so high then that the bound is
-out of reach anyway, and a project can use one spelling (for example
-`0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFu`) for 32 and 64 bit targets. The type of the value must
-be an integer type that is not wider than std::uintmax_t and not bool or a
-character type. A rate of at least 2^20 / 8 = 131072 effectively switches the
-whole-input bound off: an array of more than 32767 elements needs a count of
-type `l`, so its shortest header is `$Z#l` and four bytes (8 bytes) inside an
-optimized array of arrays (9 bytes, `[$Z#l`, at the top level), and a shorter
-header (`$Z#I` and two bytes) announces at most 32767. Every container thus has
-at most (rate * header bytes) elements, which never exceeds the limit. With a
-rate of 131071 an input that is refused exists (rows of 1048576 elements gain
-8 elements each); the per-container limit still applies.
-
-The value must be the same in every translation unit of a program (it is
-compiled into member functions of binary_reader, which are inline), and it is
-not part of the ABI tag of the namespace.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t valueless_elements_per_byte =
-    // a value that does not fit into std::size_t is the largest one (see above);
-    // the comparison is made in the widest unsigned type, so that nothing is
-    // truncated before it is made. A function template, so that the casts are
-    // not "useless" (-Wuseless-cast) where the macro already has the type
-    valueless_elements_rate((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE));
-
-/// the type of the macro's value is a character or boolean type
-template<typename T>
-struct valueless_elements_rate_is_char_or_bool : std::integral_constant < bool,
-    std::is_same<T, bool>::value || std::is_same<T, char>::value || std::is_same<T, signed char>::value
-    || std::is_same<T, unsigned char>::value || std::is_same<T, wchar_t>::value
-    || std::is_same<T, char16_t>::value || std::is_same<T, char32_t>::value >
-{};
-
-// these messages are what a user sees for a wrong value of the macro. The
-// integer test comes first because a fractional value would also fail the
-// positivity test; a value wider than std::uintmax_t would be truncated by
-// the conversion above, so it is rejected
-static_assert(std::is_integral<typename std::remove_reference<decltype((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE))>::type>::value
-              && !valueless_elements_rate_is_char_or_bool<typename std::remove_cv<typename std::remove_reference<decltype((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE))>::type>::type>::value,
-              "JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE must be an integer (not bool or a character type)");
-static_assert(sizeof(decltype((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE))) <= sizeof(std::uintmax_t),
-              "JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE must not be wider than std::uintmax_t");
-static_assert((JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE) > 0,
-              "JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE must be a positive integer");
-
-/*!
-@brief the number of bytes read up to which
-       @ref valueless_elements_base plus @ref valueless_elements_per_byte times
-       that number can be computed in std::size_t
-
-For more bytes than this the limit of the valueless elements is the largest
-std::size_t, which is saturation: the sum is not computed, because it would wrap
-around, which happens for a rate that is large (the largest std::size_t as the
-rate wraps already at the first byte) or an input that is large (more than
-about a billion bytes for the default rate with a 32-bit std::size_t). It is a
-constant of the build, so no division is made while reading.
-*/
-JSON_INLINE_VARIABLE constexpr std::size_t valueless_elements_saturation_chars =
-    ((std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)() - valueless_elements_base) / (valueless_elements_per_byte == 0 ? 1 : valueless_elements_per_byte);
 ///////////////////
 // binary reader //
 ///////////////////
@@ -18685,8 +18483,6 @@ class binary_reader
        sax = sax_;
        container_stack.clear();
        bon8_pushback_size = 0;
-        // the position is only known to the DOM parser while this reader lives
-        const position_binding binding(bound_parser(sax, std::is_convertible<SAX*, json_sax_dom_error_state*> {}), &chars_read);
        bool result = false;

        switch (input_format)
@@ -18744,61 +18540,6 @@ class binary_reader
    }

  private:
-    /// the DOM parser of @a s whose reserved storage is bounded by the input
-    /// read so far; nullptr for any other SAX parser, which does not reserve,
-    /// and for one that derives from a DOM parser privately or protectedly
-    /// (or ambiguously), which the reader cannot reach
-    static json_sax_dom_error_state* bound_parser(SAX* s, std::true_type /*is a DOM parser*/) noexcept
-    {
-        return s;
-    }
-
-    static json_sax_dom_error_state* bound_parser(SAX* /*s*/, std::false_type /*is a DOM parser*/) noexcept
-    {
-        return nullptr;
-    }
-
-    /*!
-    @brief tells a DOM parser where to find the number of characters read
-           while sax_parse() runs, and puts back what it knew before when
-           sax_parse() returns or throws
-
-    The reader is a local of the caller and is gone then, so the parser must
-    not keep its position. A parser that was bound by a reader that is still
-    running (a parse inside a parse) gets that binding back; that reader is
-    still alive, as it encloses this one.
-    */
-    class position_binding
-    {
-      public:
-        position_binding(json_sax_dom_error_state* parser_, const std::size_t* position) noexcept
-            : parser(parser_), saved()
-        {
-            if (parser != nullptr)
-            {
-                saved = parser->get_reserve_state();
-                parser->set_input_position(position);
-            }
-        }
-
-        position_binding(const position_binding&) = delete;
-        position_binding(position_binding&&) = delete;
-        position_binding& operator=(const position_binding&) = delete;
-        position_binding& operator=(position_binding&&) = delete;
-
-        ~position_binding()
-        {
-            if (parser != nullptr)
-            {
-                parser->set_reserve_state(saved);
-            }
-        }
-
-      private:
-        json_sax_dom_error_state* parser;
-        json_sax_dom_error_state::reserve_state saved;
-    };
-
    ////////////////////////
    // nested containers  //
    ////////////////////////
@@ -22295,38 +22036,6 @@ class binary_reader
        return emit_unsigned(number);
    }

-    /*!
-    @brief add the elements of a container of a valueless type to the total of
-           the input and check the total against the input read so far
-
-    A container of type 'Z', 'T' or 'F' has no payload, so its elements are the
-    only ones for which the input does not bound the count. The check is made
-    once per container, not per element.
-
-    @param[in] count  number of elements the container declares; at most
-                      @ref max_valueless_container_size
-    @return false if the total is more than @ref valueless_elements_base plus
-            @ref valueless_elements_per_byte for every byte read so far; the
-            total is not changed then
-    */
-    bool charge_valueless_elements(const std::size_t count) noexcept
-    {
-        // limit = base + rate * chars_read, saturating at the largest size_t
-        // instead of wrapping around, which would make a huge rate or input
-        // reject everything. valueless_elements never exceeds the limit of an
-        // earlier call, and the limit does not decrease, so the difference
-        // below cannot underflow.
-        const std::size_t limit = chars_read <= valueless_elements_saturation_chars
-                                  ? valueless_elements_base + (valueless_elements_per_byte * chars_read)
-                                  : (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)();
-        if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(count > limit - valueless_elements))
-        {
-            return false;
-        }
-        valueless_elements += count;
-        return true;
-    }
-
    /*!
    @return whether array creation completed
    */
@@ -22412,27 +22121,24 @@ class binary_reader
            // declared count alone decides how much is allocated; the check is
            // made before the start event so that no container is opened that
            // is then abandoned. See @ref max_valueless_container_size.
-            if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(size_and_type.second == 'Z' || size_and_type.second == 'T' || size_and_type.second == 'F'))
+            if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY((size_and_type.second == 'Z' || size_and_type.second == 'T' || size_and_type.second == 'F')
+                                     && size_and_type.first > max_valueless_container_size))
            {
-                if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(size_and_type.first > max_valueless_container_size))
-                {
-                    return out_of_range_error(exception_id::container_too_large, "excessive array size", "size");
-                }
-                if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(!charge_valueless_elements(size_and_type.first)))
-                {
-                    return out_of_range_error(exception_id::container_too_large, "excessive number of elements without payload", "size");
-                }
+                return out_of_range_error(exception_id::container_too_large, "excessive array size", "size");
            }

-            // a no-op is not a value, so an array of them is empty whatever
-            // count it declares: the SAX parser is told so, instead of being
-            // made to reserve storage for a count that no input backs
-            const std::size_t announced = size_and_type.second == 'N' ? 0 : size_and_type.first;
-            if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(!enter_array(announced, size_and_type.second)))
+            if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(!enter_array(size_and_type.first, size_and_type.second)))
            {
                return false;
            }

+            if (size_and_type.second == 'N')
+            {
+                // a no-op is not a value, so a container of them holds none;
+                // the declared size has already been passed to the SAX parser
+                container_stack.back().remaining = 0;
+            }
+
            return size_and_type.second == 0
                   || parse_ubjson_typed_run(container_stack.back().remaining, size_and_type.second, std::integral_constant<bool, bulk_scan> {});
        }
@@ -23744,10 +23450,6 @@ class binary_reader
    /// the number of characters read
    std::size_t chars_read = 0;

-    /// UBJSON: the sum of the element counts of the containers of a valueless
-    /// type read so far; see @ref charge_valueless_elements
-    std::size_t valueless_elements = 0;
-
    /// whether we can assume little endianness
    const bool is_little_endian = little_endianness();

@@ -30901,29 +30603,20 @@ class binary_writer

            // an optimized array of a valueless type carries no payload, so a
            // reader has nothing but the declared count to bound the allocation
-            // by. It refuses one array of more than max_valueless_container_size
-            // elements, and all such arrays of one input together when they add
-            // up to more than valueless_elements_base plus
-            // JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE per byte read. Write the
-            // unoptimized form, at one byte per element, for an array that
-            // would exceed the base with the arrays written so far, so that the
-            // result can be read back: the limit of a reader is never below the
-            // base, whatever the macro is set to, so the writer does not use
-            // it (and a reader with a larger rate reads this output as well).
+            // by and refuses an excessive one. Write the unoptimized form for
+            // those, at one byte per element, so the result can be read back.
            // Objects are not affected: every element is preceded by its key.
-            if (same_prefix && !(use_bjdata && is_bjdata_excluded_type_marker(first_prefix)))
+            const bool valueless_type = (first_prefix == 'Z' || first_prefix == 'T' || first_prefix == 'F');
+            const bool excessive_valueless = IsArray
+                                             && valueless_type
+                                             && size > detail::max_valueless_container_size;
+
+            if (same_prefix && !excessive_valueless
+                    && !(use_bjdata && is_bjdata_excluded_type_marker(first_prefix)))
            {
-                const bool valueless_type = IsArray && (first_prefix == 'Z' || first_prefix == 'T' || first_prefix == 'F');
-                if (!valueless_type || size <= detail::valueless_elements_base - valueless_elements_written)
-                {
-                    prefix_required = false;
-                    oa.write_character(to_char_type('$'));
-                    oa.write_character(first_prefix);
-                    if (valueless_type)
-                    {
-                        valueless_elements_written += size;
-                    }
-                }
+                prefix_required = false;
+                oa.write_character(to_char_type('$'));
+                oa.write_character(first_prefix);
            }
        }

@@ -35147,10 +34840,6 @@ class binary_writer
    /// how to treat a string value or object key that is not valid UTF-8
    /// (CBOR, MessagePack, UBJSON, BJData, and BSON; not BON8)
    const error_handler_t error_handler = binary_writer_default_error_handler();
-
-    /// UBJSON: the number of elements written so far in optimized arrays of a
-    /// valueless type, which a reader adds up and bounds
-    std::size_t valueless_elements_written = 0;
 };

 }  // namespace detail
@@ -40774,8 +40463,12 @@ public:
    }

 #ifndef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
-    // nesting_depth() is a byte and may exceed the limit by one level
-    static_assert(detail::recursion_depth_limit() < 255, "the nesting depth count must fit in a byte");
+    // nesting_depth() is a byte that never exceeds the limit (JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT),
+    // which is at most 254: the largest value stays one below the byte's maximum, so
+    // that the count cannot wrap around to 0 and let a descent go on without a bound.
+    // (recursion_depth_limit() checks the macro itself, with a message that
+    // names it; this is the check that cannot be edited away unnoticed.)
+    static_assert(detail::recursion_depth_limit() < 255, "the nesting depth count must fit in a byte: JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT must not exceed 254");

    /*!
    @brief how many levels the operation going on in this thread has descended into
@@ -40786,8 +40479,15 @@ public:
    user code nests them anyway, sharing the count only ends a descent sooner
    than it had to, which costs a little speed and is never wrong.

-    A byte is enough: the count never exceeds the limit by more than the single
-    level that notices the limit has been reached.
+    A byte is enough: only the levels that are descended into are counted
+    (@ref nesting_depth_guard), so the count never exceeds the limit, and the
+    limit is at most 254.
+
+    The count is per thread and not per value or per library configuration: all
+    translation units of a program share it, even if they were compiled with
+    different values of JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT (which is not supported, see
+    the documentation of the macro); each of them then compares the shared count
+    with its own limit.
    */
    static std::uint8_t& nesting_depth() noexcept
    {
@@ -40845,14 +40545,25 @@ public:
 #endif
        {
 #ifndef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
-            ++nesting_depth();
+            // Only a level that is entered is counted, so that the count never
+            // exceeds the limit. A level that is not entered is finished without
+            // descending, and whatever runs while it is (a copy made by a custom
+            // base class, say) sees the same count as the level itself did and
+            // is not entered either.
+            if (m_okay)
+            {
+                ++nesting_depth();
+            }
 #endif
        }

        ~nesting_depth_guard()
        {
 #ifndef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
-            --nesting_depth();
+            if (m_okay)
+            {
+                --nesting_depth();
+            }
 #endif
        }

@@ -44764,7 +44475,10 @@ public:
    */
    void update_members(const iterator& first, const iterator& last, const bool merge_objects, const std::size_t depth)
    {
-        if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(depth >= detail::recursion_depth_limit()))
+        // without merge_objects the loop below never descends, so there is no
+        // call stack to save (and the explicit stack always merges); the
+        // distinction matters for a limit of 0, which reaches this at depth 0
+        if (JSON_HEDLEY_UNLIKELY(merge_objects && depth >= detail::recursion_depth_limit()))
        {
            update_members_iteratively(first, last);
            return;
@@ -48134,7 +47848,6 @@ struct formatter<nlohmann::NLOHMANN_BASIC_JSON_TPL, char> // NOLINT(cert-dcl58-c
    #undef JSON_USE_OBJECTS_FOR_ENUM_KEYED_MAPS
    #undef JSON_DISABLE_STREAM_BULK_SCAN
    #undef JSON_DISABLE_UNLOCKED_FILE_IO
-    #undef JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE
 #endif

 // #include <nlohmann/thirdparty/hedley/hedley_undef.hpp>
@@ -355,6 +355,20 @@ json_test_add_test_for(src/unit-comparison.cpp
    MAIN test_main CXX_STANDARDS ${test_cxx_standards} ${test_force}
 )

+# test the walks over deeply nested values with the extreme settings of
+# JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT: 0 (every walk uses its explicit stack from the
+# first level on), 1, and 254 (the largest limit that fits the byte that counts
+# the nesting of a copy)
+foreach(recursion_depth_limit 0 1 254)
+    json_test_set_test_options(test-recursion_depth_limit_${recursion_depth_limit}
+        COMPILE_DEFINITIONS JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT=${recursion_depth_limit}
+    )
+    json_test_add_test_for(src/unit-recursion_depth_limit.cpp
+        NAME test-recursion_depth_limit_${recursion_depth_limit}
+        MAIN test_main CXX_STANDARDS ${test_cxx_standards} ${test_force}
+    )
+endforeach()
+
 # test the parser again with JSON_DIAGNOSTIC_POSITIONS enabled
 json_test_set_test_options(test-class_parser_diagnostic_positions
    COMPILE_DEFINITIONS JSON_DIAGNOSTIC_POSITIONS=1
@@ -410,34 +424,6 @@ json_test_add_test_for(src/unit-stream-bulk-scan.cpp
    MAIN test_main CXX_STANDARDS ${test_cxx_standards} ${test_force}
 )

-# test the budget for the elements of UBJSON containers of a valueless type again
-# with other values of JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE: 1 (the smallest),
-# 1000000 (so large that the budget cannot be reached), and the largest value of
-# a 64-bit integer (which saturates the limit already at the first byte, and is
-# clamped to the largest std::size_t where that has 32 bits). The file does not
-# mention JSON_HAS_CPP_<n>, so only C++11 is built unless the standards are forced
-json_test_set_test_options(test-ubjson_valueless_rate_1
-    COMPILE_DEFINITIONS JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE=1
-)
-json_test_add_test_for(src/unit-ubjson_valueless.cpp
-    NAME test-ubjson_valueless_rate_1
-    MAIN test_main CXX_STANDARDS ${test_cxx_standards} ${test_force}
-)
-json_test_set_test_options(test-ubjson_valueless_rate_1000000
-    COMPILE_DEFINITIONS JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE=1000000
-)
-json_test_add_test_for(src/unit-ubjson_valueless.cpp
-    NAME test-ubjson_valueless_rate_1000000
-    MAIN test_main CXX_STANDARDS ${test_cxx_standards} ${test_force}
-)
-json_test_set_test_options(test-ubjson_valueless_rate_max
-    COMPILE_DEFINITIONS JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE=0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFu
-)
-json_test_add_test_for(src/unit-ubjson_valueless.cpp
-    NAME test-ubjson_valueless_rate_max
-    MAIN test_main CXX_STANDARDS ${test_cxx_standards} ${test_force}
-)
-
 # test reading from a FILE* again with the locking stdio functions
 json_test_set_test_options(test-file_input_unlocked_io_disabled
    COMPILE_DEFINITIONS JSON_DISABLE_UNLOCKED_FILE_IO=1
@@ -1,86 +0,0 @@
-//     __ _____ _____ _____
-//  __|  |   __|     |   | |  JSON for Modern C++ (supporting code)
-// |  |  |__   |  |  | | | |  version 3.12.0
-// |_____|_____|_____|_|___|  https://github.com/nlohmann/json
-//
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2013-2026 Niels Lohmann <https://nlohmann.me>
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
-
-#pragma once
-
-#include <algorithm> // max
-#include <cstddef> // size_t
-#include <cstdint> // uint8_t
-#include <memory> // allocator
-#include <vector> // vector
-
-#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>
-
-namespace utils
-{
-/// the allocations of the values of a JSON type that uses counting_allocator
-struct allocation_counts
-{
-    /// bytes allocated and not yet deallocated
-    std::size_t current = 0;
-    /// the largest value current had
-    std::size_t peak = 0;
-    /// number of allocations
-    std::size_t allocations = 0;
-};
-
-/// the counts of all counting_allocators; the tests are single-threaded
-inline allocation_counts& counts()
-{
-    static allocation_counts c; // NOLINT(misc-const-correctness)
-    return c;
-}
-
-/// an allocator that counts the bytes and the number of allocations of a
-/// JSON type, so that a test can check how much memory a parse holds at any
-/// time without measuring the memory of the process
-template<class T>
-struct counting_allocator : std::allocator<T>
-{
-    using std::allocator<T>::allocator;
-
-    counting_allocator() = default;
-    template<class U> counting_allocator(const counting_allocator<U>& /*unused*/) noexcept {} // NOLINT(google-explicit-constructor,hicpp-explicit-conversions)
-
-    template <class U>
-    struct rebind
-    {
-        using other = counting_allocator<U>;
-    };
-
-    T* allocate(const std::size_t n)
-    {
-        T* const result = std::allocator<T>::allocate(n);
-        allocation_counts& c = counts();
-        c.current += n * sizeof(T);
-        c.peak = (std::max)(c.peak, c.current);
-        ++c.allocations;
-        return result;
-    }
-
-    void deallocate(T* p, const std::size_t n)
-    {
-        counts().current -= n * sizeof(T);
-        std::allocator<T>::deallocate(p, n);
-    }
-};
-
-using counted_json = nlohmann::json::with_allocator_t<counting_allocator>;
-
-/// @a count times the bytes of @a unit
-inline std::vector<std::uint8_t> repeated(const std::vector<std::uint8_t>& unit, const std::size_t count)
-{
-    std::vector<std::uint8_t> result;
-    result.reserve(unit.size() * count);
-    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < count; ++i)
-    {
-        result.insert(result.end(), unit.begin(), unit.end());
-    }
-    return result;
-}
-} // namespace utils
@@ -1,125 +0,0 @@
-//     __ _____ _____ _____
-//  __|  |   __|     |   | |  JSON for Modern C++ (supporting code)
-// |  |  |__   |  |  | | | |  version 3.12.0
-// |_____|_____|_____|_|___|  https://github.com/nlohmann/json
-//
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2013-2026 Niels Lohmann <https://nlohmann.me>
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
-
-#pragma once
-
-#include <cstddef> // size_t
-#include <cstdint> // uint8_t, uint32_t
-#include <limits> // numeric_limits
-#include <string> // string
-#include <vector> // vector
-
-#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>
-
-// helpers of the tests of the budget for the elements of UBJSON containers of
-// a valueless type (unit-ubjson.cpp and unit-ubjson_valueless.cpp)
-#if defined(__clang__)
-    #pragma clang diagnostic push
-    #pragma clang diagnostic ignored "-Wweak-vtables"
-#endif
-
-namespace utils
-{
-/// SAX consumer that counts the values and keeps the id of a parse error
-struct ValuelessEventCounter : public nlohmann::json_sax<nlohmann::json>
-{
-    bool null() override
-    {
-        return ++values < stop_after;
-    }
-    bool boolean(bool /*val*/) override
-    {
-        return ++values < stop_after;
-    }
-    bool number_integer(nlohmann::json::number_integer_t /*val*/) override
-    {
-        ++values;
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool number_unsigned(nlohmann::json::number_unsigned_t /*val*/) override
-    {
-        ++values;
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool number_float(nlohmann::json::number_float_t /*val*/, const std::string& /*s*/) override
-    {
-        ++values;
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool string(std::string& /*val*/) override
-    {
-        ++values;
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool binary(nlohmann::json::binary_t& /*val*/) override
-    {
-        ++values;
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool start_object(std::size_t /*elements*/) override
-    {
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool key(std::string& /*val*/) override
-    {
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool end_object() override
-    {
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool start_array(std::size_t /*elements*/) override
-    {
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool end_array() override
-    {
-        return true;
-    }
-    bool parse_error(std::size_t /*position*/, const std::string& /*last_token*/, const nlohmann::json::exception& ex) override
-    {
-        error_id = ex.id;
-        return false;
-    }
-
-    /// the handler refuses the value that makes this many
-    std::size_t stop_after = (std::numeric_limits<std::size_t>::max)();
-    std::size_t values = 0;
-    int error_id = 0;
-};
-
-/// appends `[$<marker>#l<count>` (nine bytes) to @a v
-inline void append_valueless_array(std::vector<std::uint8_t>& v, const char marker, const std::uint32_t count)
-{
-    v.push_back('[');
-    v.push_back('$');
-    v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(marker));
-    v.push_back('#');
-    v.push_back('l');
-    v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(count >> 24));
-    v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(count >> 16));
-    v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(count >> 8));
-    v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(count));
-}
-
-/// `[` followed by one `[$<marker>#l<count>` per entry of @a counts and `]`
-inline std::vector<std::uint8_t> valueless_arrays(const char marker, const std::vector<std::uint32_t>& counts)
-{
-    std::vector<std::uint8_t> v = {'['};
-    for (const auto count : counts)
-    {
-        append_valueless_array(v, marker, count);
-    }
-    v.push_back(']');
-    return v;
-}
-} // namespace utils
-
-#if defined(__clang__)
-    #pragma clang diagnostic pop
-#endif
@@ -236,7 +236,8 @@ TEST_CASE("controlled bad_alloc")

                next_construct_fails = false;

-                // deeper than the 128 levels the copy constructor descends into
+                // deeper than the levels the copy constructor descends into
+                // (recursion_depth_limit(): 128 by default, 254 at most)
                const std::size_t depth = 300;

                my_json j = 1;
@@ -300,8 +301,9 @@ struct nth_alloc_fails_allocator : std::allocator<T>
    };
 };

-// builds a value nested more than 128 levels deep - the bound the copy
-// constructor descends into before it continues without the call stack - and
+// builds a value nested more than recursion_depth_limit() (128 by default)
+// levels deep - the bound the copy constructor descends into before it
+// continues without the call stack - and
 // checks that a copy survives any single allocation of it failing: every
 // attempt either throws std::bad_alloc, without crashing or leaving the
 // source altered, or completes the copy
@@ -312,9 +314,9 @@ void check_deep_copy_survives_failing_allocation(bool nest_objects)

    fail_at_alloc_call = -1;

-    // [[[ ... [1] ... ]]], or the same nesting with objects, 130 levels deep
+    // [[[ ... [1] ... ]]], or the same nesting with objects, two levels deeper than the limit
    BasicJsonType src = 1;
-    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < 130; ++i)
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 2; ++i)
    {
        if (nest_objects)
        {
@@ -440,8 +442,9 @@ TEST_CASE("deep copy uses the provided allocator")
 {
    using counting_json = nlohmann::json::with_allocator_t<scratch_counting_allocator>;

-    // deeper than the 128 levels the copy constructor descends into, so the
-    // innermost objects are copied by the iterative deep copy
+    // deeper than the levels the copy constructor descends into (128 by
+    // default, 254 at most), so the innermost objects are copied by the
+    // iterative deep copy
    counting_json j = 1;
    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < 300; ++i)
    {
@@ -499,11 +502,12 @@ TEST_CASE("converting a deeply nested value from another specialization fails cl
 #if !(defined(_MSC_VER) && _MSC_VER < 1910 && defined(_ITERATOR_DEBUG_LEVEL) && _ITERATOR_DEBUG_LEVEL > 0)
    using countdown_json = nlohmann::json::with_allocator_t<countdown_allocator>;

-    // deeper than the 128 levels the converting constructor descends into, so
-    // that failures land on both sides of the bound - or, built with
-    // JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL, all in the iterative conversion
+    // deeper than the levels the converting constructor descends into
+    // (recursion_depth_limit(), 128 by default), so that failures land on both
+    // sides of the bound - or, built with JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL, all in the
+    // iterative conversion
    json j = {1, "two", {{"three", 3}}};
-    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < 150; ++i)
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 22; ++i)
    {
        j = json{{"a", json::array({j, "sibling"})}};
    }
@@ -31,7 +31,6 @@ using nlohmann::ordered_json;
 #include "make_test_data_available.hpp"
 #include "test_utils.hpp"
 #include "sax_countdown.hpp"
-#include "allocation_counter.hpp"
 #include "sax_event_loggers.hpp"
 using utils::SaxCountdown;
 using utils::SaxEventLogger;
@@ -4031,60 +4030,6 @@ TEST_CASE("issue #5405 - array reserve for definite-length BJData arrays")
    }
 }

-TEST_CASE("BJData - open arrays reserve only what the input has backed")
-{
-    // an array that announces its size gets storage for (up to 16384 of) its
-    // elements when it opens; the arrays that are open at the same time must
-    // not hold more than the input read so far can back
-    SECTION("nested headers that announce 16384 elements and are never completed")
-    {
-        // 200 levels would hold 200 * 16384 * sizeof(json),
-        // if each of them reserved what it announces
-        const auto input = utils::repeated({'[', '#', 'I', 0x00, 0x40}, 200);
-
-        utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-        const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_bjdata(input, true, false);
-        CHECK(j.is_discarded());
-        CAPTURE(utils::counts().peak)
-        // the credit is 65,536 values; the base peaks at more than 3 million
-        CHECK(utils::counts().peak < sizeof(utils::counted_json) * 128 * 1024);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("a completed array is still reserved in one allocation")
-    {
-        json array = json::array();
-        for (int i = 0; i < 10000; ++i)
-        {
-            array.push_back(i % 100);
-        }
-
-        // an array without a size is not reserved, so only these two
-        {
-            const auto packed = json::to_bjdata(array, true);
-
-            utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-            const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_bjdata(packed);
-            CHECK(j.size() == 10000);
-            // the array and its storage; growing the storage as the elements
-            // arrive would take more than a dozen allocations
-            CAPTURE(utils::counts().allocations)
-            CHECK(utils::counts().allocations <= 4);
-        }
-
-        {
-            const auto packed = json::to_bjdata(array, true, true);
-
-            utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-            const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_bjdata(packed);
-            CHECK(j.size() == 10000);
-            // the array and its storage; growing the storage as the elements
-            // arrive would take more than a dozen allocations
-            CAPTURE(utils::counts().allocations)
-            CHECK(utils::counts().allocations <= 4);
-        }
-    }
-}
-
 TEST_CASE("Universal Binary JSON Specification Examples 1")
 {
    SECTION("Null Value")
@@ -29,7 +29,6 @@ using nlohmann::json;
 #include "round_trip_corpus.hpp"
 #include "test_utils.hpp"
 #include "sax_countdown.hpp"
-#include "allocation_counter.hpp"
 #include "sax_event_loggers.hpp"
 using utils::SaxCountdown;
 using utils::SaxEventLogger;
@@ -2710,289 +2709,6 @@ TEST_CASE("issue #5405 - array reserve for definite-length CBOR arrays")
    }
 }

-namespace
-{
-// NOLINTBEGIN(bugprone-derived-method-shadowing-base-method)
-using dom_parser = nlohmann::detail::json_sax_dom_parser<json, nlohmann::detail::input_stream_adapter>;
-
-// handlers that wrap a DOM parser, as users of the SAX interface do
-struct public_wrapper : dom_parser
-{
-    explicit public_wrapper(json& result) : dom_parser(result, false)
-    {}
-};
-
-/// parses another input with itself while the first parse is still running
-struct reentrant_wrapper : dom_parser
-{
-    explicit reentrant_wrapper(json& result) : dom_parser(result, false)
-    {}
-
-    bool start_array(std::size_t len)
-    {
-        if (!inner_done)
-        {
-            inner_done = true;
-            const std::vector<std::uint8_t> input = {0x80};
-            json::sax_parse(input, this, json::input_format_t::cbor);
-        }
-        return dom_parser::start_array(len);
-    }
-
-    bool inner_done = false;
-};
-
-class private_wrapper : private dom_parser
-{
-  public:
-    explicit private_wrapper(json& result) : dom_parser(result, false)
-    {}
-
-    using dom_parser::null;
-    using dom_parser::boolean;
-    using dom_parser::number_integer;
-    using dom_parser::number_unsigned;
-    using dom_parser::number_float;
-    using dom_parser::string;
-    using dom_parser::binary;
-    using dom_parser::start_array;
-    using dom_parser::end_array;
-    using dom_parser::parse_error;
-
-    // the DOM parser has private overloads of these, which a using
-    // declaration cannot expose; the input of the test has no objects
-    static bool start_object(std::size_t /*len*/)
-    {
-        return false;
-    }
-
-    static bool key(std::string& /*val*/)
-    {
-        return false;
-    }
-
-    static bool end_object()
-    {
-        return false;
-    }
-};
-
-class protected_wrapper : protected dom_parser
-{
-  public:
-    explicit protected_wrapper(json& result) : dom_parser(result, false)
-    {}
-
-    using dom_parser::null;
-    using dom_parser::boolean;
-    using dom_parser::number_integer;
-    using dom_parser::number_unsigned;
-    using dom_parser::number_float;
-    using dom_parser::string;
-    using dom_parser::binary;
-    using dom_parser::start_array;
-    using dom_parser::end_array;
-    using dom_parser::parse_error;
-
-    // the DOM parser has private overloads of these, which a using
-    // declaration cannot expose; the input of the test has no objects
-    static bool start_object(std::size_t /*len*/)
-    {
-        return false;
-    }
-
-    static bool key(std::string& /*val*/)
-    {
-        return false;
-    }
-
-    static bool end_object()
-    {
-        return false;
-    }
-};
-
-// NOLINTEND(bugprone-derived-method-shadowing-base-method)
-
-/// the capacity of the fifth array of five that are open
-std::size_t innermost_capacity(const json& result)
-{
-    const json* node = &result;
-    for (int level = 0; level < 4; ++level)
-    {
-        node = &node->front();
-    }
-    return node->get_ref<const json::array_t&>().capacity();
-}
-} // namespace
-
-TEST_CASE("CBOR - open arrays reserve only what the input has backed")
-{
-    // an array that announces its size gets storage for (up to 16384 of) its
-    // elements when it opens; the arrays that are open at the same time must
-    // not hold more than the input read so far can back
-    SECTION("nested headers that announce 16384 elements and are never completed")
-    {
-        // 200 levels would hold 200 * 16384 * sizeof(json),
-        // if each of them reserved what it announces
-        const auto input = utils::repeated({0x99, 0x40, 0x00}, 200);
-
-        utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-        const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_cbor(input, true, false);
-        CHECK(j.is_discarded());
-        CAPTURE(utils::counts().peak)
-        // the credit is 65,536 values; the base peaks at more than 3 million
-        CHECK(utils::counts().peak < sizeof(utils::counted_json) * 128 * 1024);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("a completed array is still reserved in one allocation")
-    {
-        json array = json::array();
-        for (int i = 0; i < 10000; ++i)
-        {
-            array.push_back(i % 100);
-        }
-
-        {
-            const auto packed = json::to_cbor(array);
-
-            utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-            const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_cbor(packed);
-            CHECK(j.size() == 10000);
-            // the array and its storage; growing the storage as the elements
-            // arrive would take more than a dozen allocations
-            CAPTURE(utils::counts().allocations)
-            CHECK(utils::counts().allocations <= 4);
-        }
-    }
-
-    SECTION("an array that is given less than it announces is still decoded")
-    {
-        // five levels that announce 16384 elements each, the first of which
-        // is the next level: they are more than the input could back when
-        // they open
-        constexpr std::size_t levels = 5;
-        std::vector<std::uint8_t> input;
-        for (std::size_t level = 0; level < levels; ++level)
-        {
-            input.insert(input.end(), {0x99, 0x40, 0x00});
-        }
-        input.insert(input.end(), 16384, 0x01);
-        for (std::size_t level = 1; level < levels; ++level)
-        {
-            input.insert(input.end(), 16383, 0x02);
-        }
-
-        const auto j = json::from_cbor(input);
-        const json* node = &j;
-        for (std::size_t level = 0; level < levels; ++level)
-        {
-            REQUIRE(node->is_array());
-            CHECK(node->size() == 16384);
-            node = &node->front();
-        }
-        CHECK(*node == 1);
-        CHECK(j.back() == 2);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("a DOM parser that a parse has finished with is not bounded by the input of that parse")
-    {
-        // the DOM parser learns where the reader counts its characters, and
-        // must forget it when the parse is over: a handler may be driven by
-        // other code afterwards, while the reader no longer exists
-        // five levels announce more than the credit of one input, which a
-        // parse of one byte has hardly refilled
-        const auto check_unbounded = [](dom_parser & parser, json & result)
-        {
-            for (int level = 0; level < 5; ++level)
-            {
-                CHECK(parser.start_array(16384));
-            }
-
-            const json* node = &result;
-            for (int level = 0; level < 4; ++level)
-            {
-                REQUIRE(node->is_array());
-                REQUIRE(node->size() == 1);
-                node = &node->front();
-            }
-            REQUIRE(node->is_array());
-            CHECK(node->get_ref<const json::array_t&>().capacity() == 16384);
-        };
-
-        SECTION("after a parse that succeeded")
-        {
-            json result;
-            dom_parser parser(result, false);
-            const std::vector<std::uint8_t> input = {0x80};
-            CHECK(json::sax_parse(input, &parser, json::input_format_t::cbor));
-            check_unbounded(parser, result);
-        }
-
-#if !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
-        SECTION("after a parse that threw")
-        {
-            json result;
-            dom_parser parser(result, true);
-            const std::vector<std::uint8_t> input = {0x1C}; // not a CBOR value
-            CHECK_THROWS_AS(json::sax_parse(input, &parser, json::input_format_t::cbor), json::parse_error&);
-            check_unbounded(parser, result);
-        }
-#endif
-    }
-
-    SECTION("a handler that wraps a DOM parser is bound if the reader can reach the parser")
-    {
-        // five arrays announce 16384 elements: the credit of one input covers
-        // four of them, and a parse of 15 bytes has hardly refilled it
-        const auto input = utils::repeated({0x99, 0x40, 0x00}, 5);
-
-        SECTION("public base")
-        {
-            json result;
-            public_wrapper handler(result);
-            CHECK_FALSE(json::sax_parse(input, &handler, json::input_format_t::cbor));
-            CHECK(innermost_capacity(result) < 16384);
-        }
-
-        SECTION("public base, a parse inside the parse")
-        {
-            json result;
-            reentrant_wrapper handler(result);
-            CHECK_FALSE(json::sax_parse(input, &handler, json::input_format_t::cbor));
-            CHECK(handler.inner_done);
-            CHECK(innermost_capacity(result) < 16384);
-        }
-
-        // the reader cannot convert these to the DOM parser: they are not bound
-        SECTION("private base")
-        {
-            json result;
-            private_wrapper handler(result);
-            CHECK_FALSE(json::sax_parse(input, &handler, json::input_format_t::cbor));
-            CHECK(innermost_capacity(result) == 16384);
-        }
-
-        SECTION("protected base")
-        {
-            json result;
-            protected_wrapper handler(result);
-            CHECK_FALSE(json::sax_parse(input, &handler, json::input_format_t::cbor));
-            CHECK(innermost_capacity(result) == 16384);
-        }
-    }
-
-    SECTION("SAX events report the announced size")
-    {
-        SaxEventLogger logger;
-        const std::vector<std::uint8_t> input = {0x99, 0x40, 0x00};
-        CHECK_FALSE(json::sax_parse(input, &logger, json::input_format_t::cbor));
-        REQUIRE(logger.events.size() == 2);
-        CHECK(logger.events[0] == "start_array(16384)");
-        CHECK(logger.events[1] == "parse_error(4)");
-    }
-}
-
 #if !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION) // corpus values that do not survive the round trip are skipped by catching the exception
 TEST_CASE("CBOR round-trip invariants")
 {
@@ -62,6 +62,15 @@ template<> struct StringMaker<std::partial_ordering>

 namespace
 {
+// nesting depths on either side of detail::recursion_depth_limit(): none, the
+// last one within the limit, the first one past it, and well past it (0, 127,
+// 128, and 200 by default)
+std::vector<std::size_t> depths_around_recursion_limit()
+{
+    const std::size_t limit = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit();
+    return {0, limit > 0 ? limit - 1 : 0, limit, limit + 72};
+}
+
 // helper function to check std::less<json::value_t>
 // see https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/utility/functional/less
 template <typename A, typename B, typename U = std::less<json::value_t>>
@@ -968,7 +977,7 @@ TEST_CASE("copying an object preserves its comparator's state")
    object["a"] = 3;
    REQUIRE(object.dump() == R"({"B":2,"a":3,"b":1})");

-    for (const std::size_t depth : std::vector<std::size_t> {0, 127, 128, 200})
+    for (const std::size_t depth : depths_around_recursion_limit())
    {
        CAPTURE(depth)

@@ -1011,7 +1020,7 @@ TEST_CASE("equality of an object whose comparator treats different keys as equiv
    // sanity check: the object type's own comparison already disagrees
    CHECK_FALSE(a.get_ref<const ci_json::object_t&>() == b.get_ref<const ci_json::object_t&>());

-    for (const std::size_t depth : std::vector<std::size_t> {0, 127, 128, 200})
+    for (const std::size_t depth : depths_around_recursion_limit())
    {
        CAPTURE(depth)

@@ -1135,9 +1144,10 @@ TEST_CASE("operator<=> of binary values with a different subtype does not depend
        return result;
    };

-    // 127 levels stay within nesting_depth_limit() (128); 128 and 200 do not,
-    // and must still agree with the levels that do
-    for (const std::size_t depth : std::vector<std::size_t> {0, 127, 128, 200})
+    // one level less than the recursion depth limit (127 by default) stays within it;
+    // the limit itself and more (128 and 200) do not, and must still agree with the
+    // levels that do
+    for (const std::size_t depth : depths_around_recursion_limit())
    {
        CAPTURE(depth)
        const json x = deep(a, depth);
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 #include <nlohmann/json.hpp>
 using nlohmann::json;

+#include <cstddef>
 #include <cstdint>
 #include <deque>
 #include <map>
@@ -217,16 +218,17 @@ TEST_CASE("array type with std::deque nested beyond the recursion limit")
    // recursion_depth_limit() with an explicit stack of frames; with the
    // iterators of std::deque, these frames are copied and moved through
    // their own special members
+    const std::size_t depth = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 72; // 200 by default
    deque_json j = 1;
-    for (int i = 0; i < 200; ++i)
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < depth; ++i)
    {
        deque_json outer = deque_json::array();
        outer.push_back(std::move(j));
        j = std::move(outer);
    }

-    // 200 arrays of one element each (0x81) around the integer 1
-    std::vector<std::uint8_t> expected(200, 0x81);
+    // `depth` arrays of one element each (0x81) around the integer 1
+    std::vector<std::uint8_t> expected(depth, 0x81);
    expected.push_back(0x01);
    CHECK(deque_json::to_cbor(j) == expected);
 }
@@ -475,10 +475,10 @@ TEST_CASE("Regression test for issue #5674 - copy construction must not require

    SECTION("nested deeper than the copy constructor's descent bound")
    {
-        // beyond nesting_depth_limit() (128) levels, the copy constructor
+        // beyond recursion_depth_limit() (128 by default) levels, the copy constructor
        // copies without the call stack (copy_iteratively / copy_array_level),
        // which used to assign the base class of every element it created
-        const std::size_t depth = 300;
+        const std::size_t depth = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 172;

        const json_with_const_base j = make_nested_array(depth);
        const json_with_const_base copy = j; // NOLINT(performance-unnecessary-copy-initialization)
@@ -128,16 +128,19 @@ TEST_CASE("Better diagnostics with positions")
            check_copy(depth, true);
        };

+        // around detail::recursion_depth_limit() (127, 128, and 129 by default)
+        const std::size_t limit = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit();
+
        check_arrays(1);
-        check_arrays(127);
-        check_arrays(128);
-        check_arrays(129);
+        check_arrays(limit > 0 ? limit - 1 : 0);
+        check_arrays(limit);
+        check_arrays(limit + 1);
        check_arrays(300);

        check_objects(1);
-        check_objects(127);
-        check_objects(128);
-        check_objects(129);
+        check_objects(limit > 0 ? limit - 1 : 0);
+        check_objects(limit);
+        check_objects(limit + 1);
        check_objects(300);
    }

@@ -186,10 +189,13 @@ TEST_CASE("Better diagnostics with positions")
            }
        };

+        // around detail::recursion_depth_limit() (127, 128, and 129 by default)
+        const std::size_t limit = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit();
+
        check_conversion(1);
-        check_conversion(127);
-        check_conversion(128);
-        check_conversion(129);
+        check_conversion(limit > 0 ? limit - 1 : 0);
+        check_conversion(limit);
+        check_conversion(limit + 1);
        check_conversion(300);
    }

@@ -515,9 +515,11 @@ TEST_CASE("Regression tests for extended diagnostics")

        // update(j, true) around its descent bound, where the nested vectors
        // grow while the objects are merged without recursing
+        const std::size_t limit = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit();
+        // (the limit can be 0, where "one level less" is no level)
        for (const std::size_t depth :
                {
-                    nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() - 1, nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit(), nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 2
+                    limit > 0 ? limit - 1 : 0, limit, limit + 2
                })
        {
            ordered_json j = {{"z", {{"x", 1}}}};
@@ -1975,14 +1975,15 @@ TEST_CASE("JSON patch: diff of deeply nested values")
    SECTION("the diff reproduces the target at every depth")
    {
        // depths on either side of the nesting depth up to which diff()
-        // recurses (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128); not every depth up
+        // recurses (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128 by default); not every depth up
        // to 300, as the test would then time out under Valgrind
        std::vector<std::size_t> depths;
        for (std::size_t depth = 0; depth <= 16; ++depth)
        {
            depths.push_back(depth);
        }
-        for (std::size_t depth = 120; depth <= 136; ++depth)
+        const std::size_t limit = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit();
+        for (std::size_t depth = limit > 8 ? limit - 8 : 0; depth <= limit + 8; ++depth)
        {
            depths.push_back(depth);
        }
@@ -2524,7 +2525,7 @@ TEST_CASE("JSON patch - diff of leaf values below the bound of the recursive des
    // the values at the innermost level are diffed without recursion: equal
    // leaves yield nothing, leaves of different types and different leaves
    // are replaced
-    const std::size_t depth = 200;
+    const std::size_t depth = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 72; // 200 by default

    json source = {1, "text", 3, {{"x", 1}, {"y", 2}}, true, nullptr};
    json target = {1, 2, 4, {{"x", 1}, {"y", 3}}, true, nullptr};
@@ -50,13 +50,18 @@ json nested_object(const std::size_t depth, json leaf)

 TEST_CASE("issue #5392 - binary writers on deeply nested values")
 {
-    // 200 is past the point where the writers stop recursing, and still
-    // shallow enough that from_* and operator== (which still recurse) are fine.
-    const json deep_array = nested_array(200, json(0));
-    const json deep_object = nested_object(200, json("x"));
-    const json empty_array = nested_array(200, json::array());
-    const json empty_object = nested_object(200, json::object());
-    const json mixed = nested_object(80, nested_array(80, json(true)));
+    // The limit (128 by default) of the levels that the writers recurse into.
+    const std::size_t limit = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit();
+
+    // 72 levels more than the limit (200 by default) is past the point where
+    // the writers stop recursing, and still shallow enough that from_* (which
+    // does not recurse) and operator== (which does, up to the limit) are quick.
+    const json deep_array = nested_array(limit + 72, json(0));
+    const json deep_object = nested_object(limit + 72, json("x"));
+    const json empty_array = nested_array(limit + 72, json::array());
+    const json empty_object = nested_object(limit + 72, json::object());
+    // 2 * (limit / 2 + 16) levels: 160 by default, and more than the limit for every limit
+    const json mixed = nested_object((limit / 2) + 16, nested_array((limit / 2) + 16, json(true)));

    SECTION("roundtrip past the recursion bound")
    {
@@ -95,7 +100,7 @@ TEST_CASE("issue #5392 - binary writers on deeply nested values")

    SECTION("the two ways of writing a value meet at the bound")
    {
-        for (std::size_t depth = 120; depth <= 140; ++depth)
+        for (std::size_t depth = limit > 8 ? limit - 8 : 0; depth <= limit + 12; ++depth)
        {
            CAPTURE(depth)

@@ -118,8 +123,8 @@ TEST_CASE("issue #5392 - binary writers on deeply nested values")
        const json ndarray = json({{"_ArrayType_", "uint8"}, {"_ArraySize_", {2, 3}}, {"_ArrayData_", {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}}});
        const json invalid = json({{"_ArrayType_", "nope"}, {"_ArraySize_", {1}}, {"_ArrayData_", {1}}});

-        const json deep_ndarray = nested_array(140, ndarray);
-        const json deep_invalid = nested_array(140, invalid);
+        const json deep_ndarray = nested_array(limit + 12, ndarray);
+        const json deep_invalid = nested_array(limit + 12, invalid);

        CHECK(json::from_bjdata(json::to_bjdata(deep_ndarray)) == deep_ndarray);
        CHECK(json::from_bjdata(json::to_bjdata(deep_invalid)) == deep_invalid);
@@ -131,10 +136,10 @@ TEST_CASE("issue #5392 - binary writers on deeply nested values")
        // nested one-element arrays around the recursion bound: the exact
        // bytes a writer produces do not depend on whether it stayed on the
        // call stack or moved to the heap one partway through
+        // (the limit can be 0, where "one level less" is no level)
        for (const std::size_t depth :
                {
-                    nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() - 1, nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit(),
-                    nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 1, nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 2
+                    limit > 0 ? limit - 1 : 0, limit, limit + 1, limit + 2
                })
        {
            CAPTURE(depth)
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ TEST_CASE("issue #5650 - stack overflow converting between specializations")
        // members that the two object types enumerate in different orders.
        const auto bury = [](nlohmann::ordered_json value)
        {
-            for (std::size_t i = 0; i < 200; ++i)
+            for (std::size_t i = 0; i < nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 72; ++i)
            {
                value = nlohmann::ordered_json::array({std::move(value)});
            }
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ TEST_CASE("issue #5650 - stack overflow converting between specializations")
        const auto dig = [](const json & value)
        {
            const json* current = &value;
-            for (std::size_t i = 0; i < 200; ++i)
+            for (std::size_t i = 0; i < nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() + 72; ++i)
            {
                current = &current->at(0);
            }
@@ -930,14 +930,15 @@ TEST_CASE("JSON Merge Patch diff of deeply nested values")
    SECTION("the patch is the same past the descent bound")
    {
        // depths on either side of the nesting depth up to which merge_diff()
-        // recurses (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128); not every depth up
+        // recurses (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128 by default); not every depth up
        // to 300, to keep the test fast under Valgrind
        std::vector<std::size_t> depths;
        for (std::size_t depth = 0; depth <= 16; ++depth)
        {
            depths.push_back(depth);
        }
-        for (std::size_t depth = 120; depth <= 136; ++depth)
+        const std::size_t limit = nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit();
+        for (std::size_t depth = limit > 8 ? limit - 8 : 0; depth <= limit + 8; ++depth)
        {
            depths.push_back(depth);
        }
@@ -302,7 +302,7 @@ TEST_CASE("JSON Merge Patch on deeply nested values")
    SECTION("patching past the descent bound gives the same result")
    {
        // every depth on either side of where the iterative version takes
-        // over (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128)
+        // over (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128 by default)
        for (std::size_t depth = 0; depth <= 300; ++depth)
        {
            CAPTURE(depth)
@@ -396,7 +396,7 @@ TEST_CASE("merge_patch() with an argument that aliases *this (#5641)")
    SECTION("a patch nested past the iterative descent bound aliases *this")
    {
        // every depth on either side of where the iterative version takes
-        // over (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128); patching *this with
+        // over (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128 by default); patching *this with
        // itself is idempotent, aliased or not
        for (const std::size_t depth :
                {
@@ -1124,7 +1124,7 @@ TEST_CASE("update() on deeply nested values")
    SECTION("merging past the descent bound gives the same result")
    {
        // every depth on either side of where the iterative version takes
-        // over (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128)
+        // over (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128 by default)
        for (std::size_t depth = 0; depth <= 300; ++depth)
        {
            CAPTURE(depth)
@@ -1215,7 +1215,7 @@ TEST_CASE("update() with an argument that aliases *this (#5641)")
    SECTION("nested past the iterative descent bound aliases *this")
    {
        // every depth on either side of where the iterative version takes
-        // over (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128); merging *this into
+        // over (detail::recursion_depth_limit(), 128 by default); merging *this into
        // itself is idempotent, aliased or not
        for (const std::size_t depth :
                {
@@ -33,7 +33,6 @@ using nlohmann::json;
 #include "round_trip_corpus.hpp"
 #include "test_utils.hpp"
 #include "sax_countdown.hpp"
-#include "allocation_counter.hpp"
 #include "sax_event_loggers.hpp"
 using utils::SaxCountdown;
 using utils::SaxEventLogger;
@@ -1760,47 +1759,6 @@ TEST_CASE("issue #5405 - array reserve for definite-length MessagePack arrays")
    }
 }

-TEST_CASE("MessagePack - open arrays reserve only what the input has backed")
-{
-    // an array that announces its size gets storage for (up to 16384 of) its
-    // elements when it opens; the arrays that are open at the same time must
-    // not hold more than the input read so far can back
-    SECTION("nested headers that announce 16384 elements and are never completed")
-    {
-        // 200 levels would hold 200 * 16384 * sizeof(json),
-        // if each of them reserved what it announces
-        const auto input = utils::repeated({0xDC, 0x40, 0x00}, 200);
-
-        utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-        const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_msgpack(input, true, false);
-        CHECK(j.is_discarded());
-        CAPTURE(utils::counts().peak)
-        // the credit is 65,536 values; the base peaks at more than 3 million
-        CHECK(utils::counts().peak < sizeof(utils::counted_json) * 128 * 1024);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("a completed array is still reserved in one allocation")
-    {
-        json array = json::array();
-        for (int i = 0; i < 10000; ++i)
-        {
-            array.push_back(i % 100);
-        }
-
-        {
-            const auto packed = json::to_msgpack(array);
-
-            utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-            const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_msgpack(packed);
-            CHECK(j.size() == 10000);
-            // the array and its storage; growing the storage as the elements
-            // arrive would take more than a dozen allocations
-            CAPTURE(utils::counts().allocations)
-            CHECK(utils::counts().allocations <= 4);
-        }
-    }
-}
-
 TEST_CASE("regression test - MessagePack ext type rejects a subtype that doesn't fit a single byte")
 {
    // subtype 0-255 must still round-trip correctly (regression guard, pre-existing behavior)
@@ -0,0 +1,600 @@
+//     __ _____ _____ _____
+//  __|  |   __|     |   | |  JSON for Modern C++ (supporting code)
+// |  |  |__   |  |  | | | |  version 3.12.0
+// |_____|_____|_____|_|___|  https://github.com/nlohmann/json
+//
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2013-2026 Niels Lohmann <https://nlohmann.me>
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+#include "doctest_compatibility.h"
+
+#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>
+using nlohmann::json;
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <cstddef>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <functional>
+#include <iomanip>
+#include <map>
+#include <memory>
+#include <sstream>
+#include <string>
+#include <utility>
+#include <vector>
+
+// JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT changes only how much call stack the walks over a
+// value use, never what they return. This file checks both: the macro is
+// honoured (the number of levels the containers handle themselves is the limit)
+// and every walk returns what it returns with the default limit. The expected
+// results are built here, without the library, so that the same file passes for
+// every limit; tests/CMakeLists.txt builds it with limits 0, 1, and 254 besides
+// the default. Values are nested up to 300 levels (and past every limit, so that
+// the explicit stack of every walk is exercised, even for the limit of 254) and
+// are built and taken apart without recursion. Keep the depths moderate: walks
+// like diff and dump with indentation are quadratic in the depth.
+
+namespace
+{
+constexpr std::size_t limit()
+{
+    return nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit();
+}
+
+// a value nested as @a kinds says, outermost level first: 'a' is an array of
+// one element, 'o' an object with the single key "a"; @a leaf is innermost
+json build(const std::string& kinds, json leaf)
+{
+    json j = std::move(leaf);
+    for (std::size_t i = kinds.size(); i-- > 0;)
+    {
+        if (kinds[i] == 'a')
+        {
+            json a = json::array();
+            a.push_back(std::move(j));
+            j = std::move(a);
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            json o = json::object();
+            o["a"] = std::move(j);
+            j = std::move(o);
+        }
+    }
+    return j;
+}
+
+std::string repeat(const std::string& s, std::size_t n)
+{
+    std::string result;
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < n; ++i)
+    {
+        result += s;
+    }
+    return result;
+}
+
+// the nesting of the given shape and depth: arrays, objects, or both alternating
+std::string make_kinds(char shape, std::size_t depth)
+{
+    std::string kinds;
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < depth; ++i)
+    {
+        if (shape == 'm')
+        {
+            kinds += i % 2 == 0 ? 'a' : 'o';
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            kinds += shape;
+        }
+    }
+    return kinds;
+}
+
+std::string expected_compact(const std::string& kinds, const std::string& leaf)
+{
+    std::string s;
+    for (const char kind : kinds)
+    {
+        s += kind == 'a' ? "[" : "{\"a\":";
+    }
+    s += leaf;
+    for (std::size_t i = kinds.size(); i-- > 0;)
+    {
+        s += kinds[i] == 'a' ? "]" : "}";
+    }
+    return s;
+}
+
+// dump(1)
+std::string expected_indented(const std::string& kinds, const std::string& leaf)
+{
+    std::string s;
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < kinds.size(); ++i)
+    {
+        s += kinds[i] == 'a' ? "[\n" : "{\n";
+        s += std::string(i + 1, ' ');
+        if (kinds[i] == 'o')
+        {
+            s += "\"a\": ";
+        }
+    }
+    s += leaf;
+    for (std::size_t i = kinds.size(); i-- > 0;)
+    {
+        s += "\n" + std::string(i, ' ') + (kinds[i] == 'a' ? "]" : "}");
+    }
+    return s;
+}
+
+// the JSON pointer to the innermost value
+std::string pointer(const std::string& kinds)
+{
+    std::string s;
+    for (const char kind : kinds)
+    {
+        s += kind == 'a' ? "/0" : "/a";
+    }
+    return s;
+}
+
+// the binary formats: the bytes that open and close a level, and the leaf 1
+std::vector<std::uint8_t> expected_cbor(const std::string& kinds)
+{
+    std::vector<std::uint8_t> bytes;
+    for (const char kind : kinds)
+    {
+        if (kind == 'a')
+        {
+            bytes.push_back(0x81);
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            bytes.push_back(0xA1);
+            bytes.push_back(0x61);
+            bytes.push_back('a');
+        }
+    }
+    bytes.push_back(0x01);
+    return bytes;
+}
+
+std::vector<std::uint8_t> expected_msgpack(const std::string& kinds)
+{
+    std::vector<std::uint8_t> bytes;
+    for (const char kind : kinds)
+    {
+        if (kind == 'a')
+        {
+            bytes.push_back(0x91);
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            bytes.push_back(0x81);
+            bytes.push_back(0xA1);
+            bytes.push_back('a');
+        }
+    }
+    bytes.push_back(0x01);
+    return bytes;
+}
+
+std::vector<std::uint8_t> expected_ubjson(const std::string& kinds)
+{
+    std::vector<std::uint8_t> bytes;
+    for (const char kind : kinds)
+    {
+        if (kind == 'a')
+        {
+            bytes.push_back('[');
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            bytes.push_back('{');
+            bytes.push_back('i');
+            bytes.push_back(1);
+            bytes.push_back('a');
+        }
+    }
+    bytes.push_back('i');
+    bytes.push_back(1);
+    for (std::size_t i = kinds.size(); i-- > 0;)
+    {
+        bytes.push_back(kinds[i] == 'a' ? ']' : '}');
+    }
+    return bytes;
+}
+
+// the depths worth trying for the limit: either side of it, twice it (if that
+// is not too deep to be quick), and a value nested well past all limits
+std::vector<std::size_t> depths()
+{
+    std::vector<std::size_t> result;
+    result.push_back(1);
+    result.push_back(2);
+    result.push_back(limit() > 0 ? limit() - 1 : 3);
+    result.push_back(limit());
+    result.push_back(limit() + 1);
+    if ((2 * limit()) + 5 <= 300)
+    {
+        result.push_back((2 * limit()) + 5);
+    }
+    result.push_back(300);
+    std::sort(result.begin(), result.end());
+    result.erase(std::unique(result.begin(), result.end()), result.end());
+    result.erase(std::remove(result.begin(), result.end(), static_cast<std::size_t>(0)), result.end());
+    return result;
+}
+
+// the call for every shape and depth
+void for_each_value(const std::function<void(const std::string&)>& check)
+{
+    const std::string shapes = "aom";
+    for (const char shape : shapes)
+    {
+        for (const std::size_t depth : depths())
+        {
+            CAPTURE(shape)
+            CAPTURE(depth)
+            check(make_kinds(shape, depth));
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// An array type that counts how many of its copies are being made at once. A
+// copy of a value copies one level at a time through the array type until the
+// limit has been reached, so the peak is the number of levels that were copied
+// with the call stack.
+std::size_t copies_going_on = 0;
+std::size_t copies_peak = 0;
+std::size_t equal_going_on = 0;
+std::size_t equal_peak = 0;
+
+template<class T, class Allocator = std::allocator<T>>
+class counting_vector : public std::vector<T, Allocator>
+{
+  public:
+    counting_vector() = default;
+
+    template<class InputIt>
+    counting_vector(InputIt first, InputIt last) : std::vector<T, Allocator>(first, last) {}
+
+    counting_vector(const counting_vector& other) : std::vector<T, Allocator>()
+    {
+        ++copies_going_on;
+        copies_peak = (std::max)(copies_peak, copies_going_on);
+        this->std::vector<T, Allocator>::operator=(static_cast<const std::vector<T, Allocator>&>(other));
+        --copies_going_on;
+    }
+
+    counting_vector(counting_vector&&) = default;
+    counting_vector& operator=(const counting_vector&) = default;
+    counting_vector& operator=(counting_vector&&) = default;
+    ~counting_vector() = default;
+
+    friend bool operator==(const counting_vector& lhs, const counting_vector& rhs)
+    {
+        ++equal_going_on;
+        equal_peak = (std::max)(equal_peak, equal_going_on);
+        const bool result = static_cast<const std::vector<T, Allocator>&>(lhs) == static_cast<const std::vector<T, Allocator>&>(rhs);
+        --equal_going_on;
+        return result;
+    }
+};
+
+using counting_json = json::with_array_t<counting_vector>;
+
+// A base class whose copy constructor copies a whole value of the same
+// specialization when it copies a marked element, as user code may do from a
+// hook. That copy runs while the copy that it is part of is going on.
+struct copy_hook // NOLINT(cppcoreguidelines-special-member-functions,hicpp-special-member-functions)
+{
+    int mark = 0;
+
+    copy_hook() = default;
+    copy_hook(const copy_hook& other);
+    copy_hook(copy_hook&&) = default;
+    copy_hook& operator=(const copy_hook&) = default;
+    copy_hook& operator=(copy_hook&&) = default;
+};
+
+using hook_json = nlohmann::basic_json<std::map, counting_vector, std::string, bool, std::int64_t, std::uint64_t, double,
+      std::allocator, nlohmann::adl_serializer, std::vector<std::uint8_t>, copy_hook>;
+
+const hook_json* hook_copy_source = nullptr;
+int hook_copies_going_on = 0;
+
+copy_hook::copy_hook(const copy_hook& other) : mark(other.mark)
+{
+    // the value that is copied is marked, too: its copy copies it again, once
+    if (other.mark == 1 && hook_copy_source != nullptr && hook_copies_going_on < 2)
+    {
+        ++hook_copies_going_on;
+        const hook_json nested = *hook_copy_source; // NOLINT(performance-unnecessary-copy-initialization)
+        static_cast<void>(nested);
+        --hook_copies_going_on;
+    }
+}
+
+// an array nested @a depth levels around the integer 1, which is marked if @a marked
+hook_json hook_nested(std::size_t depth, bool marked)
+{
+    hook_json j = 1;
+    if (marked)
+    {
+        static_cast<copy_hook&>(j).mark = 1;
+    }
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < depth; ++i)
+    {
+        hook_json a = hook_json::array();
+        a.push_back(std::move(j));
+        j = std::move(a);
+    }
+    return j;
+}
+} // namespace
+
+// the macro is the limit, and is in the range the library supports
+static_assert(nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() == static_cast<std::size_t>(JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT),
+              "the library does not use JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT");
+static_assert(nlohmann::detail::recursion_depth_limit() <= 254, "the nesting depth must fit in a byte");
+
+TEST_CASE("JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT is honoured")
+{
+    SECTION("copying and comparing stop descending at the limit")
+    {
+        // copy and compare a value nested deeper than the limit, with the array type that counts
+        counting_json inner = 1;
+        for (std::size_t i = 0; i < (2 * limit()) + 5; ++i)
+        {
+            counting_json a = counting_json::array();
+            a.push_back(std::move(inner));
+            inner = std::move(a);
+        }
+
+        copies_going_on = copies_peak = 0;
+        const counting_json copy = inner;
+        CHECK(copies_going_on == 0);
+
+        equal_going_on = equal_peak = 0;
+        CHECK((inner == copy));
+        CHECK(equal_going_on == 0);
+
+#ifdef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
+        // without the counters of the levels, no level is descended into
+        CHECK(copies_peak == 0);
+        CHECK(equal_peak == 0);
+#else
+        // copying descends into as many levels as the limit says, and nothing further
+        CHECK(copies_peak == limit());
+        CHECK(equal_peak == limit());
+#endif
+
+        // a value that is not nested deeper than the limit is not cut short
+        const std::size_t shallow = limit() > 0 ? limit() : 1;
+        counting_json small = 1;
+        for (std::size_t i = 0; i < shallow; ++i)
+        {
+            counting_json a = counting_json::array();
+            a.push_back(std::move(small));
+            small = std::move(a);
+        }
+        copies_going_on = copies_peak = 0;
+        const counting_json small_copy = small;
+        CHECK(copies_going_on == 0);
+#ifndef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
+        CHECK(copies_peak == limit());
+#endif
+        CHECK(small_copy.dump() == expected_compact(make_kinds('a', shallow), "1"));
+    }
+}
+
+TEST_CASE("a copy made while a copy is going on is bounded, too")
+{
+    // The innermost element of the value is marked, and copying it (which happens
+    // after limit() levels have been entered, when the copy continues without the
+    // call stack) copies the value again, and that copy once more. Those copies
+    // must not be given limit() levels of their own: the count of the levels entered
+    // never exceeds the limit, not even by one, which for the largest limit would
+    // wrap the byte that holds it around to 0.
+    const hook_json marked = hook_nested((2 * limit()) + 5, true);
+    hook_copy_source = &marked;
+
+    copies_going_on = copies_peak = 0;
+    const hook_json copy = marked; // NOLINT(performance-unnecessary-copy-initialization)
+    hook_copy_source = nullptr;
+    CHECK(copies_going_on == 0);
+    CHECK(static_cast<const copy_hook&>(copy).mark == 0); // (the top level is not marked)
+
+#ifdef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
+    CHECK(copies_peak == 0);
+#else
+    CHECK(copies_peak == limit());
+#endif
+}
+
+TEST_CASE("walks over values nested around the recursion depth limit")
+{
+    SECTION("copying and comparing")
+    {
+        for_each_value([](const std::string & kinds)
+        {
+            const json a = build(kinds, 1);
+            const json b = a; // NOLINT(performance-unnecessary-copy-initialization)
+            CHECK((a == b));
+            CHECK_FALSE((a != b));
+            CHECK_FALSE((a < b));
+            CHECK((a <= b));
+            CHECK((a >= b));
+            CHECK_FALSE((a > b));
+
+            json assigned;
+            assigned = a;
+            CHECK((assigned == a));
+
+            // differing only in the innermost value
+            const json c = build(kinds, 2);
+            CHECK((a != c));
+            CHECK((a < c));
+            CHECK((c > a));
+            CHECK_FALSE((c < a));
+            CHECK_FALSE((a == c));
+
+            // a same-shape array or object that is one level shallower
+            const json shallower = build(kinds.substr(1), 1);
+            CHECK((shallower != a));
+            const json outer = build(kinds.substr(0, 1), 1);
+            CHECK((outer != a) == (kinds.size() > 1));
+
+            const json moved = std::move(assigned);
+            CHECK((moved == a));
+        });
+    }
+
+    SECTION("serializing")
+    {
+        for_each_value([](const std::string & kinds)
+        {
+            const json a = build(kinds, 1);
+            const std::string compact = expected_compact(kinds, "1");
+            const std::string indented = expected_indented(kinds, "1");
+
+            CHECK(a.dump() == compact);
+            CHECK(a.dump(1) == indented);
+
+            std::ostringstream compact_stream;
+            compact_stream << a;
+            CHECK(compact_stream.str() == compact);
+            std::ostringstream indented_stream;
+            indented_stream << std::setw(1) << a;
+            CHECK(indented_stream.str() == indented);
+
+            CHECK((json::parse(compact) == a));
+            CHECK((json::parse(indented) == a));
+        });
+    }
+
+    SECTION("hashing")
+    {
+        for_each_value([](const std::string & kinds)
+        {
+            const json a = build(kinds, 1);
+            const std::hash<json> hash;
+            CHECK(hash(a) == hash(json(a)));
+            CHECK(hash(a) == hash(json::parse(expected_compact(kinds, "1"))));
+            CHECK(hash(a) != hash(build(kinds, 2)));
+            CHECK(hash(a) != hash(build(kinds.substr(1), 1)));
+        });
+    }
+
+    SECTION("diff and patch")
+    {
+        for_each_value([](const std::string & kinds)
+        {
+            const json a = build(kinds, 1);
+            const json b = build(kinds, 2);
+
+            const json difference = json::diff(a, b);
+            CHECK(difference.dump() == "[{\"op\":\"replace\",\"path\":\"" + pointer(kinds) + "\",\"value\":2}]");
+            CHECK((a.patch(difference) == b));
+            CHECK((json::diff(a, a) == json::array()));
+        });
+    }
+
+    SECTION("flatten and unflatten")
+    {
+        for_each_value([](const std::string & kinds)
+        {
+            const json a = build(kinds, 1);
+            const json flat = a.flatten();
+            CHECK(flat.dump() == "{\"" + pointer(kinds) + "\":1}");
+            CHECK((flat.unflatten() == a));
+        });
+    }
+
+    SECTION("merge_patch and update")
+    {
+        for (const std::size_t depth : depths())
+        {
+            CAPTURE(depth)
+            const std::string kinds = make_kinds('o', depth);
+            const std::string all_but_leaf = repeat("{\"a\":", depth - 1);
+
+            // the patch removes the innermost member, or replaces it
+            json target = build(kinds, 1);
+            target.merge_patch(build(kinds, json(nullptr)));
+            CHECK(target.dump() == all_but_leaf + "{}" + repeat("}", depth - 1));
+
+            target = build(kinds, 1);
+            target.merge_patch(build(kinds, 2));
+            CHECK(target.dump() == expected_compact(kinds, "2"));
+
+            // merging the objects of two values nested alike, and replacing the first level
+            const json base = build(kinds.substr(1), json::parse("{\"x\":1}"));
+            const json other = build(kinds.substr(1), json::parse("{\"y\":2}"));
+            json merged = json{{"a", base}};
+            merged.update(json{{"a", other}}, true);
+            CHECK(merged.dump() == expected_compact(kinds, "{\"x\":1,\"y\":2}"));
+
+            json replaced = json{{"a", base}};
+            replaced.update(json{{"a", other}});
+            CHECK(replaced.dump() == expected_compact(kinds, "{\"y\":2}"));
+
+            // update from a range
+            json from_range = json{{"a", base}};
+            const json source = json{{"a", other}};
+            from_range.update(source.begin(), source.end(), true);
+            CHECK((from_range == merged));
+        }
+    }
+
+    SECTION("binary formats")
+    {
+        for_each_value([](const std::string & kinds)
+        {
+            const json a = build(kinds, 1);
+
+            const std::vector<std::uint8_t> cbor = json::to_cbor(a);
+            CHECK(cbor == expected_cbor(kinds));
+            CHECK((json::from_cbor(cbor) == a));
+
+            const std::vector<std::uint8_t> msgpack = json::to_msgpack(a);
+            CHECK(msgpack == expected_msgpack(kinds));
+            CHECK((json::from_msgpack(msgpack) == a));
+
+            const std::vector<std::uint8_t> ubjson = json::to_ubjson(a);
+            CHECK(ubjson == expected_ubjson(kinds));
+            CHECK((json::from_ubjson(ubjson) == a));
+
+            CHECK((json::from_bjdata(json::to_bjdata(a)) == a));
+            CHECK((json::from_bon8(json::to_bon8(a)) == a));
+
+            // BSON documents are objects
+            const json document = json{{"a", a}};
+            CHECK((json::from_bson(json::to_bson(document)) == document));
+        });
+    }
+
+    SECTION("conversion to another specialization")
+    {
+        for_each_value([](const std::string & kinds)
+        {
+            const json a = build(kinds, 1);
+            const nlohmann::ordered_json ordered = a;
+            CHECK(ordered.dump() == expected_compact(kinds, "1"));
+            const json back = ordered;
+            CHECK((back == a));
+        });
+    }
+
+    SECTION("destroying")
+    {
+        for_each_value([](const std::string & kinds)
+        {
+            json a = build(kinds, 1);
+            a = nullptr;
+            CHECK(a.is_null());
+        });
+    }
+}
@@ -1554,8 +1554,10 @@ TEST_CASE("regression tests 1")
        SECTION("a missing member of an object")
        {
            my_json j = make();
-#ifdef JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL
-            // (set by the user, or by the library for clang with MinGW)
+#if defined(JSON_NO_THREAD_LOCAL) || JSON_RECURSION_DEPTH_LIMIT < 2
+            // (set by the user, or by the library for clang with MinGW; or fewer than two
+            // levels are copied by the object type itself, as for a recursion depth limit
+            // of 0 or 1: the objects below the outermost one are the second level)
            // the objects below the outermost one are not copied by their
            // object_t here, but member by member, which keeps their
            // timestamps correct: "c" is not mistaken for "b" and is inserted
@@ -27,9 +27,7 @@ using nlohmann::json;
 #include "round_trip_corpus.hpp"
 #include "test_utils.hpp"
 #include "sax_countdown.hpp"
-#include "allocation_counter.hpp"
 #include "sax_event_loggers.hpp"
-#include "ubjson_valueless.hpp"
 using utils::SaxCountdown;
 using utils::SaxEventLogger;

@@ -2438,155 +2436,6 @@ TEST_CASE("UBJSON optimized arrays of a valueless type are bounded")
    }
 }

-TEST_CASE("UBJSON the writer keeps the valueless elements of an input within the base")
-{
-    // The budget of the reader is 1048576 plus a rate per byte read, see
-    // unit-ubjson_valueless.cpp, which tests it for several values of the rate.
-    // The writer does not use the rate and stays within the base
-    json _;
-
-    SECTION("to_ubjson writes the typed form up to the base only")
-    {
-        // 1048 rows of 1000 values fit under the base of 1048576, the 1049th
-        // would not: its elements are written one by one. Written all typed,
-        // 1100 rows of 6 bytes would be refused by a reader with the default
-        // rate of the macro JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE (1074 rows
-        // are the most it accepts); the writer does not follow the macro, since
-        // the limit of a reader is never below the base. The rows hold null,
-        // true or false, and the fallback does not depend on which
-        std::vector<std::uint8_t> encoded;
-        {
-            json table = json::array();
-            for (int row = 0; row < 1100; ++row)
-            {
-                const json cell = row % 3 == 0 ? json(nullptr) : json(row % 3 == 1);
-                table.push_back(json(1000, cell));
-            }
-            encoded = json::to_ubjson(table, true, true);
-        }
-        // outer array: `[$[#I` and the count (7 bytes), then 1048 typed rows of 6
-        // bytes (`$Z#I` and two bytes) and 52 rows of `#I`, two bytes, and 1000 `Z`
-        CHECK(encoded.size() == 7 + (1048 * 6) + (52 * (4 + 1000)));
-
-        // the output is read back
-        utils::ValuelessEventCounter sax;
-        CHECK(json::sax_parse(encoded, &sax, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(sax.error_id == 0);
-        CHECK(sax.values == 1100u * 1000u);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("BJData is not affected")
-    {
-        // BJData has no optimized arrays of these types, and the writer does
-        // not charge them
-        json table = json::array();
-        for (int row = 0; row < 3; ++row)
-        {
-            table.push_back(json(10, nullptr));
-        }
-        const auto encoded = json::to_bjdata(table, true, true);
-        CHECK(json::from_bjdata(encoded) == table);
-
-        const std::vector<std::uint8_t> input = {'[', '$', 'Z', '#', 'l', 0x00, 0x10, 0x00, 0x00};
-        CHECK_THROWS_AS(_ = json::from_bjdata(input), json::parse_error&);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("an object of a valueless type needs a key for every value")
-    {
-        // an object member costs a key, so the count is bounded by the input
-        // and is not charged to the budget
-        const std::vector<std::uint8_t> input = {'{', '$', 'Z', '#', 'l', 0x00, 0x10, 0x00, 0x00};
-        utils::ValuelessEventCounter sax;
-        CHECK(!json::sax_parse(input, &sax, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(sax.error_id == 110);
-        CHECK(sax.values == 0);
-    }
-}
-
-TEST_CASE("UBJSON an optimized array of no-ops is empty whatever its count")
-{
-    // A no-op ('N') is not a value, so `[$N#<n>` is an array without elements
-    // for every n. The count used to be passed on to the SAX parser, which
-    // told it to expect n elements, and the DOM parser reserved storage for
-    // them: 16384 values (256 KB) for a count of 2^31 in 9 bytes of input.
-    SECTION("the SAX parser is told that the array is empty")
-    {
-        for (const std::vector<std::uint8_t>& input :
-                {
-                    std::vector<std::uint8_t> {'[', '$', 'N', '#', 'i', 2},
-                    std::vector<std::uint8_t> {'[', '$', 'N', '#', 'I', 0x7F, 0xFF},
-                    std::vector<std::uint8_t> {'[', '$', 'N', '#', 'l', 0x7F, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF},
-                    std::vector<std::uint8_t> {'[', '$', 'N', '#', 'i', 0}
-                })
-        {
-            SaxEventLogger logger;
-            CHECK(json::sax_parse(input, &logger, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-            CHECK(logger.events == std::vector<std::string>({"start_array(0)", "end_array()"}));
-        }
-
-        // between other values, the next value is read as usual
-        const std::vector<std::uint8_t> nested = {'[', '[', '$', 'N', '#', 'l', 0x7F, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 'T', '[', '$', 'N', '#', 'i', 3, ']'};
-        SaxEventLogger logger;
-        CHECK(json::sax_parse(nested, &logger, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(logger.events == std::vector<std::string>({"start_array()", "start_array(0)", "end_array()", "boolean(true)", "start_array(0)", "end_array()", "end_array()"}));
-    }
-
-    SECTION("the DOM parser reserves nothing")
-    {
-        // 2000 arrays of 9 bytes that announce 2^31 elements each: with a
-        // reservation of 16384 values per array this took about 500 MB
-        std::vector<std::uint8_t> input = {'['};
-        for (int i = 0; i < 2000; ++i)
-        {
-            input.insert(input.end(), {'[', '$', 'N', '#', 'l', 0x7F, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF});
-        }
-        input.push_back(']');
-
-        const json j = json::from_ubjson(input);
-        REQUIRE(j.size() == 2000);
-        std::size_t capacity = 0;
-        for (const auto& element : j)
-        {
-            CHECK(element.is_array());
-            CHECK(element.empty());
-            capacity += element.get_ref<const json::array_t&>().capacity();
-        }
-        CHECK(capacity == 0);
-
-        // the 7-byte form inside an optimized array of arrays
-        std::vector<std::uint8_t> typed = {'[', '$', '[', '#', 'I', 0x07, 0xD0};
-        for (int i = 0; i < 2000; ++i)
-        {
-            typed.insert(typed.end(), {'$', 'N', '#', 'I', 0x7F, 0xFF});
-        }
-        const json k = json::from_ubjson(typed);
-        REQUIRE(k.size() == 2000);
-        capacity = 0;
-        for (const auto& element : k)
-        {
-            CHECK(element.empty());
-            capacity += element.get_ref<const json::array_t&>().capacity();
-        }
-        CHECK(capacity == 0);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("a count that no container could hold is no longer an error")
-    {
-        // the array is empty, so nothing has to fit: 0x7FFFFFFF used to be
-        // reported as out_of_range.408 where it exceeds the maximum size of
-        // an array, and is accepted now
-        const std::vector<std::uint8_t> input = {'[', '$', 'N', '#', 'l', 0x7F, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF};
-        CHECK(json::from_ubjson(input) == json::array());
-
-        // a count that does not fit into std::size_t still is
-#if SIZE_MAX == 0xffffffff
-        const std::vector<std::uint8_t> too_large = {'[', '$', 'N', '#', 'L', 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x01, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00};
-        json _;
-        CHECK_THROWS_AS(_ = json::from_ubjson(too_large), json::out_of_range&);
-#endif
-    }
-}
-
 TEST_CASE("issue #5405 - array reserve for definite-length UBJSON arrays")
 {
 #if !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
@@ -2692,60 +2541,6 @@ TEST_CASE("issue #5405 - array reserve for definite-length UBJSON arrays")
    }
 }

-TEST_CASE("UBJSON - open arrays reserve only what the input has backed")
-{
-    // an array that announces its size gets storage for (up to 16384 of) its
-    // elements when it opens; the arrays that are open at the same time must
-    // not hold more than the input read so far can back
-    SECTION("nested headers that announce 16384 elements and are never completed")
-    {
-        // 200 levels would hold 200 * 16384 * sizeof(json),
-        // if each of them reserved what it announces
-        const auto input = utils::repeated({'[', '#', 'I', 0x40, 0x00}, 200);
-
-        utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-        const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_ubjson(input, true, false);
-        CHECK(j.is_discarded());
-        CAPTURE(utils::counts().peak)
-        // the credit is 65,536 values; the base peaks at more than 3 million
-        CHECK(utils::counts().peak < sizeof(utils::counted_json) * 128 * 1024);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("a completed array is still reserved in one allocation")
-    {
-        json array = json::array();
-        for (int i = 0; i < 10000; ++i)
-        {
-            array.push_back(i % 100);
-        }
-
-        // an array without a size is not reserved, so only these two
-        {
-            const auto packed = json::to_ubjson(array, true);
-
-            utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-            const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_ubjson(packed);
-            CHECK(j.size() == 10000);
-            // the array and its storage; growing the storage as the elements
-            // arrive would take more than a dozen allocations
-            CAPTURE(utils::counts().allocations)
-            CHECK(utils::counts().allocations <= 4);
-        }
-
-        {
-            const auto packed = json::to_ubjson(array, true, true);
-
-            utils::counts() = utils::allocation_counts{};
-            const auto j = utils::counted_json::from_ubjson(packed);
-            CHECK(j.size() == 10000);
-            // the array and its storage; growing the storage as the elements
-            // arrive would take more than a dozen allocations
-            CAPTURE(utils::counts().allocations)
-            CHECK(utils::counts().allocations <= 4);
-        }
-    }
-}
-

 TEST_CASE("Universal Binary JSON Specification Examples 1")
 {
@@ -1,310 +0,0 @@
-//     __ _____ _____ _____
-//  __|  |   __|     |   | |  JSON for Modern C++ (supporting code)
-// |  |  |__   |  |  | | | |  version 3.12.0
-// |_____|_____|_____|_|___|  https://github.com/nlohmann/json
-//
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2013-2026 Niels Lohmann <https://nlohmann.me>
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
-
-// The budget for the elements of the UBJSON containers of a valueless type
-// ('Z', 'T', 'F') of a whole input: 1048576 plus
-// JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE for every byte read (see
-// docs/mkdocs/docs/api/macros/json_ubjson_valueless_elements_per_byte.md).
-//
-// The file is built several times, with the macro defined to other values (see
-// tests/CMakeLists.txt), and every boundary below is computed from the macro.
-// What it can test depends on the value: with a rate of at most 10000 the
-// budget can be reached with the few bytes of a test, so the tests exceed it
-// at the exact byte; with a rate of 131072 or more the budget cannot be reached
-// by an input of any size (see the macro's page: 2^20 / 8 = 131072 elements per
-// byte is what the shortest header of a container of the largest size allows), and
-// the tests check that nothing is refused, in particular that the limit does
-// not wrap around for a rate near the largest integer. The input is read with
-// a SAX handler that counts the values, because a DOM of a million values is
-// what makes such a test slow under Valgrind.
-
-#include "doctest_compatibility.h"
-
-#include <nlohmann/json.hpp>
-using nlohmann::json;
-
-#include <cstddef> // size_t
-#include <cstdio> // FILE, tmpfile, fwrite, fseek, fclose
-#include <cstdint> // uint8_t, uint32_t
-#include <list>
-#include <sstream>
-#include <vector>
-
-#include "ubjson_valueless.hpp"
-using utils::ValuelessEventCounter;
-using utils::valueless_arrays;
-
-#ifndef JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE
-    #error "this test needs the macro: compile it with JSON_TEST_KEEP_MACROS (see tests/CMakeLists.txt)"
-#endif
-
-namespace
-{
-/// the base of the budget and the limit of a single container: both 2^20
-constexpr std::uint32_t budget_base = 1048576;
-
-#if JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE <= 10000 || JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE >= 131072
-/// what version 3.12.0 wrote for a table of @a rows (at most 32767) rows of
-/// @a width nulls with to_ubjson(table, true, true): `[$[#I` and the count of
-/// the rows (7 bytes), then a row as `$Z#` and its count (`U` and 1 byte up to
-/// 255, `I` and 2 bytes up to 32767, `l` and 4 bytes above): 5, 6 or 8 bytes
-std::vector<std::uint8_t> rows_3_12_0(const std::uint32_t rows, const std::uint32_t width)
-{
-    std::vector<std::uint8_t> v = {'[', '$', '[', '#', 'I', static_cast<std::uint8_t>(rows >> 8), static_cast<std::uint8_t>(rows)};
-    for (std::uint32_t row = 0; row < rows; ++row)
-    {
-        v.push_back('$');
-        v.push_back('Z');
-        v.push_back('#');
-        if (width <= 255)
-        {
-            v.push_back('U');
-        }
-        else if (width <= 32767)
-        {
-            v.push_back('I');
-            v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(width >> 8));
-        }
-        else
-        {
-            v.push_back('l');
-            v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(width >> 24));
-            v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(width >> 16));
-            v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(width >> 8));
-        }
-        v.push_back(static_cast<std::uint8_t>(width));
-    }
-    return v;
-}
-#endif
-} // namespace
-
-TEST_CASE("UBJSON the limit of a single container does not depend on the macro")
-{
-#if !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
-    json _;
-
-    SECTION("a container of more than 1048576 elements is refused")
-    {
-        // the first check of every container; its message differs from that of
-        // the budget, so that it is clear which limit was exceeded
-        for (const char marker :
-                {'Z', 'T', 'F'
-                })
-        {
-            const auto input = valueless_arrays(marker, {budget_base + 1});
-            CHECK_THROWS_WITH_AS(_ = json::from_ubjson(input), "[json.exception.out_of_range.408] syntax error while parsing UBJSON size: excessive array size", json::out_of_range&);
-        }
-    }
-#endif
-
-    SECTION("a container of 1048576 elements is accepted at the start of an input")
-    {
-        // whatever the rate: the base is the per-container limit. The handler
-        // ends the parse at the first value, so that the million values are
-        // not read
-        const std::vector<std::uint8_t> single = {'[', '$', 'Z', '#', 'l', 0x00, 0x10, 0x00, 0x00};
-        ValuelessEventCounter sax;
-        sax.stop_after = 1;
-        CHECK(!json::sax_parse(single, &sax, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(sax.error_id == 0);
-        CHECK(sax.values == 1);
-    }
-}
-
-#if JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE <= 10000
-
-namespace
-{
-/// the rate of the build; at most 10000 here, which the boundaries rely on
-constexpr std::uint32_t rate = JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE;
-
-/// elements of the first of two containers; the second one is then refused at
-/// its header, which is read at byte 1 + 9 + 9 = 19
-constexpr std::uint32_t first_count = 524288;
-
-/// the largest count the second container may have at byte 19: base plus rate
-/// for each of the 19 bytes, less what the first one used. For a rate of at
-/// most 27594, the largest that keeps this within the limit of one container
-constexpr std::uint32_t second_allowed = budget_base - first_count + (19 * rate);
-} // namespace
-
-TEST_CASE("UBJSON the valueless elements of a whole input are bounded")
-{
-    // The per-container limit alone let nine bytes (`[$Z#l` and a count of
-    // 1048576) announce a million values, and every further nine bytes another
-    // million. The elements of all containers of type 'Z', 'T' or 'F' in one
-    // input are added up: they may not exceed 1048576 plus
-    // JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE for every byte read when the
-    // container's header has been read.
-#if !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
-    json _;
-    const char* const budget_message = "[json.exception.out_of_range.408] syntax error while parsing UBJSON size: excessive number of elements without payload";
-#endif
-
-    SECTION("the input of the original report is rejected")
-    {
-        // the second array is the first one that is refused, by one element
-#if !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
-        CHECK_THROWS_WITH_AS(_ = json::from_ubjson(valueless_arrays('Z', {first_count, second_allowed + 1})), budget_message, json::out_of_range&);
-#endif
-
-        // and is accepted with one element less
-        ValuelessEventCounter sax;
-        CHECK(json::sax_parse(valueless_arrays('Z', {first_count, second_allowed}), &sax, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(sax.values == first_count + second_allowed);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("every input adapter applies the budget")
-    {
-        const auto input = valueless_arrays('Z', {first_count, second_allowed + 1});
-
-        // stream; not strict, which does not matter
-        std::stringstream stream;
-        stream.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(input.data()), static_cast<std::streamsize>(input.size()));
-        ValuelessEventCounter from_stream;
-        CHECK(!json::sax_parse(stream, &from_stream, json::input_format_t::ubjson, false));
-        CHECK(from_stream.error_id == 408);
-
-        // a container that is not contiguous; the counts of arrays of
-        // different types are added up
-        std::vector<std::uint8_t> mixed = {'['};
-        utils::append_valueless_array(mixed, 'T', first_count);
-        utils::append_valueless_array(mixed, 'F', second_allowed + 1);
-        mixed.push_back(']');
-        const std::list<std::uint8_t> as_list(mixed.begin(), mixed.end());
-        ValuelessEventCounter from_list;
-        CHECK(!json::sax_parse(as_list.begin(), as_list.end(), &from_list, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(from_list.error_id == 408);
-        CHECK(from_list.values == first_count);
-
-        // FILE*
-        FILE* const file = std::tmpfile(); // NOLINT(cppcoreguidelines-owning-memory)
-        REQUIRE(file != nullptr);
-        CHECK(std::fwrite(input.data(), 1, input.size(), file) == input.size());
-        CHECK(std::fseek(file, 0, SEEK_SET) == 0);
-        ValuelessEventCounter from_file;
-        CHECK(!json::sax_parse(file, &from_file, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(from_file.error_id == 408);
-        std::fclose(file); // NOLINT(cert-err33-c,cppcoreguidelines-owning-memory)
-    }
-
-    SECTION("the limit is exact and the bytes read raise it")
-    {
-        // [ [$Z#l first_count] [$U#l payload + payload bytes] [$Z#l count] ]:
-        // chars_read is 1 + 9 + (9 + payload) + 9 = 28 + payload when the last
-        // header has been read, so the last array may hold
-        // rate * (28 + payload) values on top of the base less the
-        // first_count of the first array. The payload is as large as the
-        // limit of one container allows, but at most 4096
-        constexpr std::uint32_t payload_limit = (524288 / rate) - 40;
-        constexpr std::uint32_t payload = payload_limit < 4096 ? payload_limit : 4096;
-        constexpr std::uint32_t last_allowed = budget_base - first_count + (rate * (28 + payload));
-        static_assert(last_allowed < budget_base, "the count must be accepted by the limit of one container");
-
-        for (const std::uint32_t count :
-                {
-                    last_allowed, last_allowed + 1
-                })
-        {
-            CAPTURE(count)
-            std::vector<std::uint8_t> input = {'['};
-            utils::append_valueless_array(input, 'Z', first_count);
-            input.insert(input.end(), {'[', '$', 'U', '#', 'l',
-                                       static_cast<std::uint8_t>(payload >> 24), static_cast<std::uint8_t>(payload >> 16),
-                                       static_cast<std::uint8_t>(payload >> 8), static_cast<std::uint8_t>(payload)
-                                      });
-            input.insert(input.end(), payload, 0x01);
-            utils::append_valueless_array(input, 'Z', count);
-            input.push_back(']');
-            ValuelessEventCounter sax;
-            const bool accepted = count == last_allowed;
-            CHECK(json::sax_parse(input, &sax, json::input_format_t::ubjson) == accepted);
-            CHECK(sax.error_id == (accepted ? 0 : 408));
-            CHECK(sax.values == first_count + payload + (accepted ? count : 0u));
-        }
-    }
-
-    SECTION("a table written by 3.12.0")
-    {
-        // Version 3.12.0 wrote a table of rows of nulls with one `$Z#` header
-        // per row (see the macro's page). A row of `width` elements has a
-        // header of 6 bytes up to 32767 elements (5 up to 255), so the budget
-        // grows by 6 * rate per row, and the row brings `width`. The 7 bytes
-        // of the outer header are read first. Row r is accepted while
-        //     r * width <= 1048576 + rate * (7 + 6 * r),
-        // which is r <= (1048576 + 7 * rate) / (width - 6 * rate) for a width
-        // above 6 * rate, and always true otherwise.
-        constexpr std::uint32_t width = 1000;
-        constexpr std::uint32_t rows = 1200;
-        constexpr std::uint32_t credit = 6 * rate;
-        constexpr std::uint32_t accepted_rows = width > credit ? (budget_base + (7 * rate)) / (width - credit) : rows;
-        constexpr std::uint32_t read_rows = accepted_rows < rows ? accepted_rows : rows;
-
-        ValuelessEventCounter sax;
-        CHECK(json::sax_parse(rows_3_12_0(rows, width), &sax, json::input_format_t::ubjson) == (accepted_rows >= rows));
-        CHECK(sax.error_id == (accepted_rows >= rows ? 0 : 408));
-        CHECK(sax.values == static_cast<std::size_t>(read_rows) * width);
-    }
-}
-
-#elif JSON_UBJSON_VALUELESS_ELEMENTS_PER_BYTE >= 131072
-
-TEST_CASE("UBJSON a rate that cannot be reached switches the budget off")
-{
-    // The rate is so large (2^20 / 8 = 131072 elements per byte or more)
-    // that no input can exceed the budget: the shortest header of a container
-    // of the largest size is 8 bytes (`$Z#l` and a count of 4 bytes, in an
-    // array of arrays). The limit is base + rate * bytes read, which wraps
-    // around for a rate near the largest integer in 64 and in 32
-    // bits already at the first byte, unless it saturates: a wrapped limit
-    // would refuse the second container below (at byte 19 or at byte 10, where
-    // a limit of 2^20 + 10 * rate wraps for a 32-bit rate of 0x7FFFFFFF).
-#if !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
-    json _;
-#endif
-
-    SECTION("containers of the largest size are accepted one after the other")
-    {
-        // the first container is accepted by the base alone, the second one is
-        // not: it needs the rate. The handler ends the parse at its first
-        // value, so that the second million values are not read
-        const auto input = valueless_arrays('Z', {budget_base, budget_base});
-        ValuelessEventCounter sax;
-        sax.stop_after = static_cast<std::size_t>(budget_base) + 1;
-        CHECK(!json::sax_parse(input, &sax, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(sax.error_id == 0);
-        CHECK(sax.values == static_cast<std::size_t>(budget_base) + 1);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("the limit of a single container still applies")
-    {
-        const auto input = valueless_arrays('T', {budget_base, budget_base + 1});
-        ValuelessEventCounter sax;
-        CHECK(!json::sax_parse(input, &sax, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(sax.error_id == 408);
-        CHECK(sax.values == budget_base);
-#if !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
-        CHECK_THROWS_WITH_AS(_ = json::from_ubjson(valueless_arrays('F', {budget_base + 1})), "[json.exception.out_of_range.408] syntax error while parsing UBJSON size: excessive array size", json::out_of_range&);
-#endif
-    }
-
-    SECTION("a table written by 3.12.0 is read completely")
-    {
-        // 1200 rows of 1000 values are refused after 1074 rows at the default
-        // rate and are accepted with every rate of 167 and more
-        ValuelessEventCounter sax;
-        CHECK(json::sax_parse(rows_3_12_0(1200, 1000), &sax, json::input_format_t::ubjson));
-        CHECK(sax.error_id == 0);
-        CHECK(sax.values == 1200u * 1000u);
-    }
-}
-
-// (rates from 10001 to 131071 can be reached, but not with the few bytes of a
-// test: there is nothing to test for them here)
-#endif
				`@@ -1 +0,0 @@`
				`[json.exception.out_of_range.408] syntax error while parsing UBJSON size: excessive number of elements without payload`