diff --git a/executable_semantics/ast/expression.h b/executable_semantics/ast/expression.h
index bc63f923d649..60ec449c4c99 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/ast/expression.h
+++ b/executable_semantics/ast/expression.h
@@ -133,11 +133,6 @@ class IdentifierExpression : public Expression {
     named_entity_ = std::move(named_entity);
   }
 
-  // Returns true if set_named_entity has been called. Should be used only
-  // for debugging purposes.
-  // TODO: remove this once we no longer need the CHECKs that use it.
-  auto has_named_entity() const -> bool { return named_entity_.has_value(); }
-
  private:
   std::string name_;
   std::optional<NamedEntityView> named_entity_;
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/BUILD b/executable_semantics/interpreter/BUILD
index d74345734c06..316ad38e3a89 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/BUILD
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/BUILD
@@ -110,6 +110,7 @@ cc_library(
     hdrs = ["heap_allocation_interface.h"],
     deps = [
         ":address",
+        "//executable_semantics/common:arena",
         "//executable_semantics/common:nonnull",
     ],
 )
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/action.cpp b/executable_semantics/interpreter/action.cpp
index ed5129137414..a341d1f6b8c2 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/action.cpp
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/action.cpp
@@ -21,26 +21,80 @@ namespace Carbon {
 
 using llvm::cast;
 
-Scope::Scope(Scope&& other) noexcept
-    : values_(other.values_),
-      locals_(std::exchange(other.locals_, {})),
+RuntimeScope::RuntimeScope(RuntimeScope&& other) noexcept
+    : locals_(std::move(other.locals_)),
+      // To transfer ownership of other.allocations_, we have to empty it out.
+      allocations_(std::exchange(other.allocations_, {})),
       heap_(other.heap_) {}
 
-auto Scope::operator=(Scope&& rhs) noexcept -> Scope& {
-  values_ = rhs.values_;
-  locals_ = std::exchange(rhs.locals_, {});
+auto RuntimeScope::operator=(RuntimeScope&& rhs) noexcept -> RuntimeScope& {
+  locals_ = std::move(rhs.locals_);
+  // To transfer ownership of rhs.allocations_, we have to empty it out.
+  allocations_ = std::exchange(rhs.allocations_, {});
   heap_ = rhs.heap_;
   return *this;
 }
 
-Scope::~Scope() {
-  for (const auto& l : locals_) {
-    std::optional<AllocationId> a = values_.Get(l);
-    CHECK(a.has_value());
-    heap_->Deallocate(*a);
+RuntimeScope::~RuntimeScope() {
+  for (AllocationId allocation : allocations_) {
+    heap_->Deallocate(allocation);
   }
 }
 
+void RuntimeScope::Print(llvm::raw_ostream& out) const {
+  out << "{";
+  llvm::ListSeparator sep;
+  for (const auto& [named_entity, value] : locals_) {
+    out << sep << named_entity.name() << ": " << *value;
+  }
+  out << "}";
+}
+
+void RuntimeScope::Initialize(NamedEntityView named_entity,
+                              Nonnull<const Value*> value) {
+  CHECK(!named_entity.constant_value().has_value());
+  CHECK(value->kind() != Value::Kind::LValue);
+  allocations_.push_back(heap_->AllocateValue(value));
+  auto [it, success] = locals_.insert(
+      {named_entity, heap_->arena().New<LValue>(Address(allocations_.back()))});
+  CHECK(success) << "Duplicate definition of " << named_entity.name();
+}
+
+void RuntimeScope::Merge(RuntimeScope other) {
+  CHECK(heap_ == other.heap_);
+  locals_.merge(other.locals_);
+  CHECK(other.locals_.empty())
+      << "Duplicate definition of " << other.locals_.size()
+      << " names, including " << other.locals_.begin()->first.name();
+  allocations_.insert(allocations_.end(), other.allocations_.begin(),
+                      other.allocations_.end());
+  other.allocations_.clear();
+}
+
+auto RuntimeScope::Get(NamedEntityView named_entity) const
+    -> std::optional<Nonnull<const LValue*>> {
+  auto it = locals_.find(named_entity);
+  if (it != locals_.end()) {
+    return it->second;
+  } else {
+    return std::nullopt;
+  }
+}
+
+auto RuntimeScope::Capture(
+    const std::vector<Nonnull<const RuntimeScope*>>& scopes) -> RuntimeScope {
+  CHECK(!scopes.empty());
+  RuntimeScope result(scopes.front()->heap_);
+  for (Nonnull<const RuntimeScope*> scope : scopes) {
+    CHECK(scope->heap_ == result.heap_);
+    for (const auto& entry : scope->locals_) {
+      // Intentionally disregards duplicates later in the vector.
+      result.locals_.insert(entry);
+    }
+  }
+  return result;
+}
+
 void Action::Print(llvm::raw_ostream& out) const {
   switch (kind()) {
     case Action::Kind::LValAction:
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/action.h b/executable_semantics/interpreter/action.h
index 30b4239f398f..abfacd48065c 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/action.h
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/action.h
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 #ifndef EXECUTABLE_SEMANTICS_INTERPRETER_ACTION_H_
 #define EXECUTABLE_SEMANTICS_INTERPRETER_ACTION_H_
 
+#include <map>
 #include <vector>
 
 #include "common/ostream.h"
@@ -19,42 +20,47 @@
 
 namespace Carbon {
 
-using Env = Dictionary<std::string, AllocationId>;
-
-// A Scope represents the name lookup environment associated with an Action,
-// including any variables that are local to that action. Local variables
-// will be deallocated from the Carbon Heap when the Scope is destroyed.
-class Scope {
+// A RuntimeScope manages and provides access to the storage for names that are
+// not compile-time constants.
+class RuntimeScope {
  public:
-  // Constructs a Scope whose name environment is `values`, containing the local
-  // variables in `locals`. The elements of `locals` must also be keys in
-  // `values`, and their values must be allocated in `heap`.
-  Scope(Env values, std::vector<std::string> locals,
-        Nonnull<HeapAllocationInterface*> heap)
-      : values_(values), locals_(std::move(locals)), heap_(heap) {}
+  // Returns a RuntimeScope whose Get() operation for a given name returns the
+  // storage owned by the first entry in `scopes` that defines that name. This
+  // behavior is closely analogous to a `[&]` capture in C++, hence the name.
+  // `scopes` must contain at least one entry, and all entries must be backed
+  // by the same Heap.
+  static auto Capture(const std::vector<Nonnull<const RuntimeScope*>>& scopes)
+      -> RuntimeScope;
 
-  // Equivalent to `Scope(values, {}, heap)`.
-  Scope(Env values, Nonnull<HeapAllocationInterface*> heap)
-      : Scope(values, std::vector<std::string>(), heap) {}
+  // Constructs a RuntimeScope that allocates storage in `heap`.
+  explicit RuntimeScope(Nonnull<HeapAllocationInterface*> heap) : heap_(heap) {}
 
-  // Moving a Scope transfers ownership of its local variables.
-  Scope(Scope&&) noexcept;
-  auto operator=(Scope&&) noexcept -> Scope&;
+  // Moving a RuntimeScope transfers ownership of its allocations.
+  RuntimeScope(RuntimeScope&&) noexcept;
+  auto operator=(RuntimeScope&&) noexcept -> RuntimeScope&;
 
-  ~Scope();
+  // Deallocates any allocations in this scope from `heap`.
+  ~RuntimeScope();
 
-  // Binds `name` to the value of `allocation` in `heap`, and takes
-  // ownership of it.
-  void AddLocal(const std::string& name, AllocationId allocation) {
-    values_.Set(name, allocation);
-    locals_.push_back(name);
-  }
+  void Print(llvm::raw_ostream& out) const;
+  LLVM_DUMP_METHOD void Dump() const { Print(llvm::errs()); }
 
-  auto values() const -> Env { return values_; }
+  // Allocates storage for `named_entity` in `heap`, and initializes it with
+  // `value`.
+  void Initialize(NamedEntityView named_entity, Nonnull<const Value*> value);
+
+  // Transfers the names and allocations from `other` into *this. The two
+  // scopes must not define the same name, and must be backed by the same Heap.
+  void Merge(RuntimeScope other);
+
+  // Returns the local storage for named_entity, if it has storage local to
+  // this scope.
+  auto Get(NamedEntityView named_entity) const
+      -> std::optional<Nonnull<const LValue*>>;
 
  private:
-  Env values_;
-  std::vector<std::string> locals_;
+  std::map<NamedEntityView, Nonnull<const LValue*>> locals_;
+  std::vector<AllocationId> allocations_;
   Nonnull<HeapAllocationInterface*> heap_;
 };
 
@@ -114,13 +120,13 @@ class Action {
   void AddResult(Nonnull<const Value*> result) { results_.push_back(result); }
 
   // Returns the scope associated with this Action, if any.
-  auto scope() -> std::optional<Scope>& { return scope_; }
+  auto scope() -> std::optional<RuntimeScope>& { return scope_; }
 
   // Associates this action with a new scope, with initial state `scope`.
   // Values that are local to this scope will be deallocated when this
   // Action is completed or unwound. Can only be called once on a given
   // Action.
-  void StartScope(Scope scope) {
+  void StartScope(RuntimeScope scope) {
     CHECK(!scope_.has_value());
     scope_ = std::move(scope);
   }
@@ -133,7 +139,7 @@ class Action {
  private:
   int pos_ = 0;
   std::vector<Nonnull<const Value*>> results_;
-  std::optional<Scope> scope_;
+  std::optional<RuntimeScope> scope_;
 
   const Kind kind_;
 };
@@ -234,7 +240,7 @@ class DeclarationAction : public Action {
 // with AST nodes.
 class ScopeAction : public Action {
  public:
-  explicit ScopeAction(Scope scope) : Action(Kind::ScopeAction) {
+  explicit ScopeAction(RuntimeScope scope) : Action(Kind::ScopeAction) {
     StartScope(std::move(scope));
   }
 
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/action_stack.cpp b/executable_semantics/interpreter/action_stack.cpp
index 459a5d4e1463..5b4ed82926ec 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/action_stack.cpp
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/action_stack.cpp
@@ -17,20 +17,97 @@ void ActionStack::Print(llvm::raw_ostream& out) const {
   }
 }
 
+void ActionStack::PrintScopes(llvm::raw_ostream& out) const {
+  llvm::ListSeparator sep(" :: ");
+  for (const std::unique_ptr<Action>& action : todo_) {
+    if (action->scope().has_value()) {
+      out << sep << *action->scope();
+    }
+  }
+  if (globals_.has_value()) {
+    out << sep << *globals_;
+  }
+  // TODO: should we print constants as well?
+}
+
 void ActionStack::Start(std::unique_ptr<Action> action) {
   result_ = std::nullopt;
   CHECK(todo_.IsEmpty());
-  todo_ = {};
   todo_.Push(std::move(action));
 }
 
-auto ActionStack::CurrentScope() const -> Scope& {
+void ActionStack::Initialize(NamedEntityView named_entity,
+                             Nonnull<const Value*> value) {
   for (const std::unique_ptr<Action>& action : todo_) {
     if (action->scope().has_value()) {
-      return *action->scope();
+      action->scope()->Initialize(named_entity, value);
+      return;
     }
   }
-  return globals_;
+  globals_->Initialize(named_entity, value);
+}
+
+auto ActionStack::ValueOfName(NamedEntityView named_entity,
+                              SourceLocation source_loc) const
+    -> Nonnull<const Value*> {
+  if (std::optional<Nonnull<const Value*>> constant_value =
+          named_entity.constant_value();
+      constant_value.has_value()) {
+    return *constant_value;
+  }
+  for (const std::unique_ptr<Action>& action : todo_) {
+    // TODO: have static name resolution identify the scope of named_entity
+    // as an AstNode, and then perform lookup _only_ on the Action associated
+    // with that node. This will help keep unwanted dynamic-scoping behavior
+    // from sneaking in.
+    if (action->scope().has_value()) {
+      std::optional<Nonnull<const Value*>> result =
+          action->scope()->Get(named_entity);
+      if (result.has_value()) {
+        return *result;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  if (globals_.has_value()) {
+    std::optional<Nonnull<const Value*>> result = globals_->Get(named_entity);
+    if (result.has_value()) {
+      return *result;
+    }
+  }
+  // TODO: Move these errors to compile time and explain them more clearly.
+  FATAL_RUNTIME_ERROR(source_loc)
+      << "could not find `" << named_entity.name() << "`";
+}
+
+void ActionStack::MergeScope(RuntimeScope scope) {
+  for (const std::unique_ptr<Action>& action : todo_) {
+    if (action->scope().has_value()) {
+      action->scope()->Merge(std::move(scope));
+      return;
+    }
+  }
+  if (globals_.has_value()) {
+    globals_->Merge(std::move(scope));
+    return;
+  }
+  FATAL() << "No current scope";
+}
+
+void ActionStack::InitializeFragment(ContinuationValue::StackFragment& fragment,
+                                     Nonnull<const Statement*> body) {
+  std::vector<Nonnull<const RuntimeScope*>> scopes;
+  for (const std::unique_ptr<Action>& action : todo_) {
+    if (action->scope().has_value()) {
+      scopes.push_back(&*action->scope());
+    }
+  }
+  // We don't capture globals_ or constants_ because they're global.
+
+  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Action>> reversed_todo;
+  reversed_todo.push_back(std::make_unique<StatementAction>(body));
+  reversed_todo.push_back(
+      std::make_unique<ScopeAction>(RuntimeScope::Capture(scopes)));
+  fragment.StoreReversed(std::move(reversed_todo));
 }
 
 void ActionStack::FinishAction() {
@@ -70,7 +147,7 @@ void ActionStack::Spawn(std::unique_ptr<Action> child) {
   todo_.Push(std::move(child));
 }
 
-void ActionStack::Spawn(std::unique_ptr<Action> child, Scope scope) {
+void ActionStack::Spawn(std::unique_ptr<Action> child, RuntimeScope scope) {
   Action& action = *todo_.Top();
   action.set_pos(action.pos() + 1);
   todo_.Push(std::make_unique<ScopeAction>(std::move(scope)));
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/action_stack.h b/executable_semantics/interpreter/action_stack.h
index 6e24218d921e..739de309f11d 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/action_stack.h
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/action_stack.h
@@ -19,13 +19,21 @@ namespace Carbon {
 class ActionStack {
  public:
   // Constructs an empty ActionStack
-  explicit ActionStack(Scope globals) : globals_(std::move(globals)) {}
+  ActionStack() = default;
 
   void Print(llvm::raw_ostream& out) const;
   LLVM_DUMP_METHOD void Dump() const { Print(llvm::errs()); }
 
-  // Returns an Env containing the currently-defined global variables.
-  auto GlobalEnv() const -> Env { return globals_.values(); }
+  // TODO: consider unifying with Print.
+  void PrintScopes(llvm::raw_ostream& out) const;
+
+  // Sets the heap that variables will be allocated on. Cannot be called at
+  // run time, or when IsEmpty() is false, and marks the start of run time.
+  void SetHeap(Nonnull<HeapAllocationInterface*> heap) {
+    CHECK(todo_.IsEmpty());
+    CHECK(!globals_.has_value());
+    globals_ = RuntimeScope(heap);
+  }
 
   // Starts execution with `action` at the top of the stack. Cannot be called
   // when IsEmpty() is false.
@@ -38,13 +46,25 @@ class ActionStack {
   // ScopeAction.
   auto CurrentAction() -> Action& { return *todo_.Top(); }
 
-  // The scope that should be used to resolve name lookups in the current
-  // action.
-  auto CurrentScope() const -> Scope&;
+  // Allocates storage for `named_entity`, and initializes it to `value`.
+  void Initialize(NamedEntityView named_entity, Nonnull<const Value*> value);
+
+  // Returns the value bound to `named_entity`. If `named_entity` is a local
+  // variable, this will be an LValue.
+  auto ValueOfName(NamedEntityView named_entity,
+                   SourceLocation source_loc) const -> Nonnull<const Value*>;
+
+  // Merges `scope` into the innermost scope currently on the stack.
+  void MergeScope(RuntimeScope scope);
+
+  // Initializes `fragment` so that, when resumed, it begins execution of
+  // `body`.
+  void InitializeFragment(ContinuationValue::StackFragment& fragment,
+                          Nonnull<const Statement*> body);
 
   // The result produced by the `action` argument of the most recent
-  // `Start` call. *this must be empty, signifying that the action has been
-  // fully executed.
+  // Start call. Cannot be called if IsEmpty() is false, or if `action`
+  // was an action that doesn't produce results.
   auto result() const -> Nonnull<const Value*> { return *result_; }
 
   // The following methods, called "transition methods", update the state of
@@ -65,7 +85,7 @@ class ActionStack {
   // Advances the current action one step, and push `child` onto the stack.
   // If `scope` is specified, `child` will be executed in that scope.
   void Spawn(std::unique_ptr<Action> child);
-  void Spawn(std::unique_ptr<Action> child, Scope scope);
+  void Spawn(std::unique_ptr<Action> child, RuntimeScope scope);
 
   // Advances the current action one step.
   void RunAgain();
@@ -100,7 +120,7 @@ class ActionStack {
   // TODO: consider defining a non-nullable unique_ptr-like type to use here.
   Stack<std::unique_ptr<Action>> todo_;
   std::optional<Nonnull<const Value*>> result_;
-  mutable Scope globals_;
+  std::optional<RuntimeScope> globals_;
 };
 
 }  // namespace Carbon
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap.cpp b/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap.cpp
index 54180f007918..387e11962382 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap.cpp
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap.cpp
@@ -55,16 +55,11 @@ void Heap::Print(llvm::raw_ostream& out) const {
   llvm::ListSeparator sep;
   for (size_t i = 0; i < values_.size(); ++i) {
     out << sep;
-    PrintAllocation(AllocationId(i), out);
+    if (!alive_[i]) {
+      out << "!!";
+    }
+    out << *values_[i];
   }
 }
 
-void Heap::PrintAllocation(AllocationId allocation,
-                           llvm::raw_ostream& out) const {
-  if (!alive_[allocation.index_]) {
-    out << "!!";
-  }
-  out << *values_[allocation.index_];
-}
-
 }  // namespace Carbon
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap.h b/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap.h
index c7eb111a2482..3647c8858c93 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap.h
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap.h
@@ -41,14 +41,13 @@ class Heap : public HeapAllocationInterface {
   // Marks this allocation, and all of its sub-objects, as dead.
   void Deallocate(AllocationId allocation) override;
 
-  // Print the value at the given allocation to the stream `out`.
-  void PrintAllocation(AllocationId allocation, llvm::raw_ostream& out) const;
-
   // Print all the values on the heap to the stream `out`.
   void Print(llvm::raw_ostream& out) const;
 
   LLVM_DUMP_METHOD void Dump() const { Print(llvm::errs()); }
 
+  auto arena() const -> Arena& override { return *arena_; }
+
  private:
   // Signal an error if the allocation is no longer alive.
   void CheckAlive(AllocationId allocation, SourceLocation source_loc);
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap_allocation_interface.h b/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap_allocation_interface.h
index dfa849fcbffe..5a791966aa85 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap_allocation_interface.h
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/heap_allocation_interface.h
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 #ifndef EXECUTABLE_SEMANTICS_INTERPRETER_HEAP_ALLOCATION_INTERFACE_H_
 #define EXECUTABLE_SEMANTICS_INTERPRETER_HEAP_ALLOCATION_INTERFACE_H_
 
+#include "executable_semantics/common/arena.h"
 #include "executable_semantics/common/nonnull.h"
 #include "executable_semantics/interpreter/address.h"
 
@@ -26,6 +27,9 @@ class HeapAllocationInterface {
   // Marks this allocation, and all of its sub-objects, as dead.
   virtual void Deallocate(AllocationId allocation) = 0;
 
+  // Returns the arena used to allocate the values in this heap.
+  virtual auto arena() const -> Arena& = 0;
+
  protected:
   HeapAllocationInterface() = default;
   virtual ~HeapAllocationInterface() = default;
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/interpreter.cpp b/executable_semantics/interpreter/interpreter.cpp
index ebdfd7376d96..e119c383d601 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/interpreter.cpp
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/interpreter.cpp
@@ -23,43 +23,20 @@
 
 using llvm::cast;
 using llvm::dyn_cast;
+using llvm::isa;
 
 namespace Carbon {
 
-//
-// Auxiliary Functions
-//
-
-void Interpreter::PrintEnv(Env values, llvm::raw_ostream& out) {
-  llvm::ListSeparator sep;
-  for (const auto& [name, allocation] : values) {
-    out << sep << name << ": ";
-    heap_.PrintAllocation(allocation, out);
-  }
-}
-
 //
 // State Operations
 //
 
-auto Interpreter::CurrentEnv() -> Env { return todo_.CurrentScope().values(); }
-
-// Returns the given name from the environment, printing an error if not found.
-auto Interpreter::GetFromEnv(SourceLocation source_loc, const std::string& name)
-    -> Address {
-  std::optional<AllocationId> pointer = CurrentEnv().Get(name);
-  if (!pointer) {
-    FATAL_RUNTIME_ERROR(source_loc) << "could not find `" << name << "`";
-  }
-  return Address(*pointer);
-}
-
 void Interpreter::PrintState(llvm::raw_ostream& out) {
   out << "{\nstack: " << todo_;
   out << "\nheap: " << heap_;
   if (!todo_.IsEmpty()) {
     out << "\nvalues: ";
-    PrintEnv(CurrentEnv(), out);
+    todo_.PrintScopes(out);
   }
   out << "\n}\n";
 }
@@ -109,17 +86,21 @@ auto Interpreter::CreateStruct(const std::vector<FieldInitializer>& fields,
 }
 
 auto Interpreter::PatternMatch(Nonnull<const Value*> p, Nonnull<const Value*> v,
-                               SourceLocation source_loc)
-    -> std::optional<Env> {
+                               SourceLocation source_loc,
+                               std::optional<Nonnull<RuntimeScope*>> bindings)
+    -> bool {
   switch (p->kind()) {
     case Value::Kind::BindingPlaceholderValue: {
-      const auto& placeholder = cast<BindingPlaceholderValue>(*p);
-      Env values(arena_);
-      if (placeholder.named_entity().has_value()) {
-        AllocationId a = heap_.AllocateValue(v);
-        values.Set(std::string(placeholder.named_entity()->name()), a);
+      if (!bindings.has_value()) {
+        // TODO: move this to typechecker.
+        FATAL_COMPILATION_ERROR(source_loc)
+            << "Name bindings are not supported in this context";
       }
-      return values;
+      const auto& placeholder = cast<BindingPlaceholderValue>(*p);
+      if (placeholder.named_entity().has_value()) {
+        (*bindings)->Initialize(*placeholder.named_entity(), v);
+      }
+      return true;
     }
     case Value::Kind::TupleValue:
       switch (v->kind()) {
@@ -131,18 +112,13 @@ auto Interpreter::PatternMatch(Nonnull<const Value*> p, Nonnull<const Value*> v,
                 << "arity mismatch in tuple pattern match:\n  pattern: "
                 << p_tup << "\n  value: " << v_tup;
           }
-          Env values(arena_);
           for (size_t i = 0; i < p_tup.elements().size(); ++i) {
-            std::optional<Env> matches = PatternMatch(
-                p_tup.elements()[i], v_tup.elements()[i], source_loc);
-            if (!matches) {
-              return std::nullopt;
-            }
-            for (const auto& [name, value] : *matches) {
-              values.Set(name, value);
+            if (!PatternMatch(p_tup.elements()[i], v_tup.elements()[i],
+                              source_loc, bindings)) {
+              return false;
             }
           }  // for
-          return values;
+          return true;
         }
         default:
           FATAL() << "expected a tuple value in pattern, not " << *v;
@@ -151,20 +127,14 @@ auto Interpreter::PatternMatch(Nonnull<const Value*> p, Nonnull<const Value*> v,
       const auto& p_struct = cast<StructValue>(*p);
       const auto& v_struct = cast<StructValue>(*v);
       CHECK(p_struct.elements().size() == v_struct.elements().size());
-      Env values(arena_);
       for (size_t i = 0; i < p_struct.elements().size(); ++i) {
         CHECK(p_struct.elements()[i].name == v_struct.elements()[i].name);
-        std::optional<Env> matches =
-            PatternMatch(p_struct.elements()[i].value,
-                         v_struct.elements()[i].value, source_loc);
-        if (!matches) {
-          return std::nullopt;
-        }
-        for (const auto& [name, value] : *matches) {
-          values.Set(name, value);
+        if (!PatternMatch(p_struct.elements()[i].value,
+                          v_struct.elements()[i].value, source_loc, bindings)) {
+          return false;
         }
       }
-      return values;
+      return true;
     }
     case Value::Kind::AlternativeValue:
       switch (v->kind()) {
@@ -173,9 +143,10 @@ auto Interpreter::PatternMatch(Nonnull<const Value*> p, Nonnull<const Value*> v,
           const auto& v_alt = cast<AlternativeValue>(*v);
           if (p_alt.choice_name() != v_alt.choice_name() ||
               p_alt.alt_name() != v_alt.alt_name()) {
-            return std::nullopt;
+            return false;
           }
-          return PatternMatch(&p_alt.argument(), &v_alt.argument(), source_loc);
+          return PatternMatch(&p_alt.argument(), &v_alt.argument(), source_loc,
+                              bindings);
         }
         default:
           FATAL() << "expected a choice alternative in pattern, not " << *v;
@@ -185,35 +156,25 @@ auto Interpreter::PatternMatch(Nonnull<const Value*> p, Nonnull<const Value*> v,
         case Value::Kind::FunctionType: {
           const auto& p_fn = cast<FunctionType>(*p);
           const auto& v_fn = cast<FunctionType>(*v);
-          std::optional<Env> param_matches =
-              PatternMatch(&p_fn.parameters(), &v_fn.parameters(), source_loc);
-          if (!param_matches) {
-            return std::nullopt;
+          if (!PatternMatch(&p_fn.parameters(), &v_fn.parameters(), source_loc,
+                            bindings)) {
+            return false;
           }
-          std::optional<Env> ret_matches = PatternMatch(
-              &p_fn.return_type(), &v_fn.return_type(), source_loc);
-          if (!ret_matches) {
-            return std::nullopt;
+          if (!PatternMatch(&p_fn.return_type(), &v_fn.return_type(),
+                            source_loc, bindings)) {
+            return false;
           }
-          Env values = *param_matches;
-          for (const auto& [name, value] : *ret_matches) {
-            values.Set(name, value);
-          }
-          return values;
+          return true;
         }
         default:
-          return std::nullopt;
+          return false;
       }
     case Value::Kind::AutoType:
       // `auto` matches any type, without binding any new names. We rely
       // on the typechecker to ensure that `v` is a type.
-      return Env(arena_);
+      return true;
     default:
-      if (ValueEqual(p, v)) {
-        return Env(arena_);
-      } else {
-        return std::nullopt;
-      }
+      return ValueEqual(p, v);
   }
 }
 
@@ -228,13 +189,10 @@ void Interpreter::StepLvalue() {
     case ExpressionKind::IdentifierExpression: {
       //    { {x :: C, E, F} :: S, H}
       // -> { {E(x) :: C, E, F} :: S, H}
-      CHECK(cast<IdentifierExpression>(exp).has_named_entity())
-          << "Identifier '" << exp << "' at " << exp.source_loc()
-          << " was not resolved";
-      Address pointer =
-          GetFromEnv(exp.source_loc(), cast<IdentifierExpression>(exp).name());
-      Nonnull<const Value*> v = arena_->New<LValue>(pointer);
-      return todo_.FinishAction(v);
+      Nonnull<const Value*> value = todo_.ValueOfName(
+          cast<IdentifierExpression>(exp).named_entity(), exp.source_loc());
+      CHECK(isa<LValue>(value)) << *value;
+      return todo_.FinishAction(value);
     }
     case ExpressionKind::FieldAccessExpression: {
       if (act.pos() == 0) {
@@ -443,17 +401,13 @@ void Interpreter::StepExp() {
     case ExpressionKind::IdentifierExpression: {
       CHECK(act.pos() == 0);
       const auto& ident = cast<IdentifierExpression>(exp);
-      CHECK(ident.has_named_entity())
-          << "Identifier '" << exp << "' at " << exp.source_loc()
-          << " was not resolved";
       // { {x :: C, E, F} :: S, H} -> { {H(E(x)) :: C, E, F} :: S, H}
-      if (std::optional<Nonnull<const Value*>> value =
-              ident.named_entity().constant_value();
-          value.has_value()) {
-        return todo_.FinishAction(*value);
+      Nonnull<const Value*> value =
+          todo_.ValueOfName(ident.named_entity(), ident.source_loc());
+      if (const auto* lvalue = dyn_cast<LValue>(value)) {
+        value = heap_.Read(lvalue->address(), exp.source_loc());
       }
-      Address pointer = GetFromEnv(exp.source_loc(), ident.name());
-      return todo_.FinishAction(heap_.Read(pointer, exp.source_loc()));
+      return todo_.FinishAction(value);
     }
     case ExpressionKind::IntLiteral:
       CHECK(act.pos() == 0);
@@ -505,20 +459,15 @@ void Interpreter::StepExp() {
                 cast<FunctionValue>(*act.results()[0]).declaration();
             Nonnull<const Value*> converted_args = Convert(
                 act.results()[1], &function.param_pattern().static_type());
-            std::optional<Env> matches =
-                PatternMatch(&function.param_pattern().value(), converted_args,
-                             exp.source_loc());
-            CHECK(matches.has_value())
-                << "internal error in call_function, pattern match failed";
-            Scope new_scope(todo_.GlobalEnv(), &heap_);
-            for (const auto& [name, value] : *matches) {
-              new_scope.AddLocal(name, value);
-            }
+            RuntimeScope function_scope(&heap_);
+            CHECK(PatternMatch(&function.param_pattern().value(),
+                               converted_args, exp.source_loc(),
+                               &function_scope));
             CHECK(function.body().has_value())
                 << "Calling a function that's missing a body";
             return todo_.Spawn(
                 std::make_unique<StatementAction>(*function.body()),
-                std::move(new_scope));
+                std::move(function_scope));
           }
           default:
             FATAL_RUNTIME_ERROR(exp.source_loc())
@@ -671,7 +620,7 @@ void Interpreter::StepStmt() {
       if (act.pos() == 0) {
         //    { { (match (e) ...) :: C, E, F} :: S, H}
         // -> { { e :: (match ([]) ...) :: C, E, F} :: S, H}
-        act.StartScope(Scope(CurrentEnv(), &heap_));
+        act.StartScope(RuntimeScope(&heap_));
         return todo_.Spawn(
             std::make_unique<ExpressionAction>(&match_stmt.expression()));
       } else {
@@ -680,17 +629,13 @@ void Interpreter::StepStmt() {
           return todo_.FinishAction();
         }
         auto c = match_stmt.clauses()[clause_num];
-        std::optional<Env> matches =
-            PatternMatch(&c.pattern().value(),
+        RuntimeScope matches(&heap_);
+        if (PatternMatch(&c.pattern().value(),
                          Convert(act.results()[0], &c.pattern().static_type()),
-                         stmt.source_loc());
-        if (matches) {  // We have a match, start the body.
+                         stmt.source_loc(), &matches)) {
           // Ensure we don't process any more clauses.
           act.set_pos(match_stmt.clauses().size() + 1);
-
-          for (const auto& [name, value] : *matches) {
-            act.scope()->AddLocal(name, value);
-          }
+          todo_.MergeScope(std::move(matches));
           return todo_.Spawn(std::make_unique<StatementAction>(&c.statement()));
         } else {
           return todo_.RunAgain();
@@ -739,7 +684,7 @@ void Interpreter::StepStmt() {
       }
       // Initialize a scope when starting a block.
       if (act.pos() == 0) {
-        act.StartScope(Scope(CurrentEnv(), &heap_));
+        act.StartScope(RuntimeScope(&heap_));
       }
       // Process the next statement in the block. The position will be
       // incremented as part of Spawn.
@@ -761,14 +706,11 @@ void Interpreter::StepStmt() {
         Nonnull<const Value*> p =
             &cast<VariableDefinition>(stmt).pattern().value();
 
-        std::optional<Env> matches = PatternMatch(p, v, stmt.source_loc());
-        CHECK(matches)
+        RuntimeScope matches(&heap_);
+        CHECK(PatternMatch(p, v, stmt.source_loc(), &matches))
             << stmt.source_loc()
             << ": internal error in variable definition, match failed";
-        for (const auto& [name, value] : *matches) {
-          Scope& current_scope = todo_.CurrentScope();
-          current_scope.AddLocal(name, value);
-        }
+        todo_.MergeScope(std::move(matches));
         return todo_.FinishAction();
       }
     }
@@ -844,21 +786,15 @@ void Interpreter::StepStmt() {
       }
     case StatementKind::Continuation: {
       CHECK(act.pos() == 0);
+      const auto& continuation = cast<Continuation>(stmt);
       // Create a continuation object by creating a frame similar the
       // way one is created in a function call.
       auto fragment = arena_->New<ContinuationValue::StackFragment>();
       stack_fragments_.push_back(fragment);
-      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Action>> reversed_todo;
-      reversed_todo.push_back(
-          std::make_unique<StatementAction>(&cast<Continuation>(stmt).body()));
-      reversed_todo.push_back(
-          std::make_unique<ScopeAction>(Scope(CurrentEnv(), &heap_)));
-      fragment->StoreReversed(std::move(reversed_todo));
-      AllocationId continuation_address =
-          heap_.AllocateValue(arena_->New<ContinuationValue>(fragment));
+      todo_.InitializeFragment(*fragment, &continuation.body());
       // Bind the continuation object to the continuation variable
-      todo_.CurrentScope().AddLocal(cast<Continuation>(stmt).name(),
-                                    continuation_address);
+      todo_.Initialize(&cast<Continuation>(stmt),
+                       arena_->New<ContinuationValue>(fragment));
       return todo_.FinishAction();
     }
     case StatementKind::Run: {
@@ -892,8 +828,7 @@ void Interpreter::StepDeclaration() {
         return todo_.Spawn(
             std::make_unique<ExpressionAction>(&var_decl.initializer()));
       } else {
-        todo_.CurrentScope().AddLocal(var_decl.binding().name(),
-                                      heap_.AllocateValue(act.results()[0]));
+        todo_.Initialize(&var_decl.binding(), act.results()[0]);
         return todo_.FinishAction();
       }
     }
@@ -939,6 +874,8 @@ void Interpreter::RunAllSteps(bool trace_steps) {
 }
 
 auto Interpreter::InterpProgram(const AST& ast) -> int {
+  todo_.SetHeap(&heap_);
+
   if (trace_) {
     llvm::outs() << "********** initializing globals **********\n";
   }
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/interpreter.h b/executable_semantics/interpreter/interpreter.h
index e943518fd785..470338b8545c 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/interpreter.h
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/interpreter.h
@@ -25,10 +25,7 @@ namespace Carbon {
 class Interpreter {
  public:
   explicit Interpreter(Nonnull<Arena*> arena, bool trace)
-      : arena_(arena),
-        heap_(arena),
-        todo_(Scope(Env(arena_), &heap_)),
-        trace_(trace) {}
+      : arena_(arena), heap_(arena), trace_(trace) {}
 
   // Interpret the whole program.
   auto InterpProgram(const AST& ast) -> int;
@@ -39,18 +36,22 @@ class Interpreter {
   // Interpret a pattern at compile-time.
   auto InterpPattern(Nonnull<const Pattern*> p) -> Nonnull<const Value*>;
 
-  // Attempts to match `v` against the pattern `p`. If matching succeeds,
-  // returns the bindings of pattern variables to their matched values.
-  auto PatternMatch(Nonnull<const Value*> p, Nonnull<const Value*> v,
-                    SourceLocation source_loc) -> std::optional<Env>;
+  // Attempts to match `v` against the pattern `p`, returning whether matching
+  // is successful. If it is, populates **bindings with the variables bound by
+  // the match; `bindings` should only be nullopt in contexts where `p`
+  // is not permitted to bind variables. **bindings may be modified even if the
+  // match is unsuccessful, so it should typically be created for the
+  // PatternMatch call and then merged into an existing scope on success.
+  [[nodiscard]] auto PatternMatch(
+      Nonnull<const Value*> p, Nonnull<const Value*> v,
+      SourceLocation source_loc, std::optional<Nonnull<RuntimeScope*>> bindings)
+      -> bool;
 
   // Support TypeChecker allocating values on the heap.
   auto AllocateValue(Nonnull<const Value*> v) -> AllocationId {
     return heap_.AllocateValue(v);
   }
 
-  void PrintEnv(Env values, llvm::raw_ostream& out);
-
  private:
   void Step();
 
@@ -65,10 +66,6 @@ class Interpreter {
   // State transition for declarations.
   void StepDeclaration();
 
-  auto CurrentEnv() -> Env;
-  auto GetFromEnv(SourceLocation source_loc, const std::string& name)
-      -> Address;
-
   // Calls Step() repeatedly until there are no steps left to execute. Produces
   // trace output if trace_steps is true.
   void RunAllSteps(bool trace_steps);
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/type_checker.cpp b/executable_semantics/interpreter/type_checker.cpp
index 34d917384358..e4c466d51360 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/type_checker.cpp
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/type_checker.cpp
@@ -732,9 +732,8 @@ void TypeChecker::TypeCheckPattern(
         if (IsConcreteType(type)) {
           ExpectType(p->source_loc(), "name binding", type, *expected);
         } else {
-          std::optional<Env> values = interpreter_.PatternMatch(
-              type, *expected, binding.type().source_loc());
-          if (values == std::nullopt) {
+          if (!interpreter_.PatternMatch(
+                  type, *expected, binding.type().source_loc(), std::nullopt)) {
             FATAL_COMPILATION_ERROR(binding.type().source_loc())
                 << "Type pattern '" << *type << "' does not match actual type '"
                 << **expected << "'";
diff --git a/executable_semantics/interpreter/type_checker.h b/executable_semantics/interpreter/type_checker.h
index 5194309099b8..43628bc91535 100644
--- a/executable_semantics/interpreter/type_checker.h
+++ b/executable_semantics/interpreter/type_checker.h
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@
 #ifndef EXECUTABLE_SEMANTICS_INTERPRETER_TYPE_CHECKER_H_
 #define EXECUTABLE_SEMANTICS_INTERPRETER_TYPE_CHECKER_H_
 
-#include <map>
 #include <set>
 
 #include "common/ostream.h"